In the previous lessons you have
learned that cells can be classified as
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
- Can you still cite the difference
between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cell?
Directions: Name if the following organelles can be
found in eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells.
CELL/CELL ORGANELLES PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC
1. NUCLEUS
[Link] Mitosis
[Link]
4. Flagella
[Link]
6. Mitochondria
Activity 1 “Check n’ Guess”
Directions1. Analyze the picture and read the
statement in the box to determine the word
being described. Write your answer on a
separate sheet of paper.
CELL MODIFICATION
OBJECTIVES
[Link] some cell modifications that lead to
adaptation to carry out
specialized function;
2. describe some cell modifications among
bacteria, animals and plants
that lead to adaptation to carry out
specialized functions;
• Activity 2. Finding
Word
Form the correct word
of jumbled letters on
the left to identify the
important terms/words
used to describe some
cell modifications
among bacteria,
animals and plants.
Learning Objectives:
• Define cell modification
• enumerate and describe the three types of cell
modification
• characterize apical, basal and lateral cell
modifications
• give examples of apical, basal and lateral cell
modifications
CELL SPECIALIZATION
• also know as cell differentiation
• it is the process by which Generic cell
will transform to different type of cell to
be able to perform specific or special
function
Are a specialized or modification
re acquired by the cell after cell
division that helps the cell in
different beneficial ways
EXAMPLE
What is Cell Modification?
• Are specialized or modifications re-
acquired by the cell after cell division
that helps the cell in different
beneficial ways
• ADAPTATION OR CHANGES ACQUIRED BY
THE CELL DIVISION THAT AIDS THE CELL IN
VARIOUS BENEFICIAL WAY
Why are cell Why are cell modifications
important?
• Thus, modifications are chemistries
that allow cells to respond to signals
without the need for additional
transcription and then are lost when
the RNA is degraded only to re-emerge!
Apical Modification
• Cell modification found on the apical
surface of the cell basement membrane
gap junctions adhering junctions tight
junctions free surface of epithelial
tissue
What is the importance of apical modification?
• The apical surfaces of epithelial cells are
modified in certain areas in order to
facilitate movement of substances on
the epithelial surface or to increase
the surface area of the epithelial
lining.
Basal Modification
• Cell modification found on the
basal surface of the cell basement
membrane gap junctions adhering
junctions tight junctions free surface of
epithelial tissue.
the basal surface is the bottom edge of
the cell or tissue adjacent to the
basement membrane. In particular, the
epithelial tissue is a group of cells (called
epithelial cells) that lie together to carry out
a common function. The epithelial tissue
acts as a covering.
A. Basal Modification
Desmosomes/Hemidesmosomes
• Anchoring junction on the basal surface of the
cell
• Rivet-like links between cytoskeleton and
extracellular matrix components such as the
basal lamina that underlie epithelia Primarily
composed of keratin, integrins and cadherins
Lateral Modification
• Cell modification found on the basal surface of
the cell
• Cell modification found on the basal surface
of the cell. Lateral Modification Tight Junction
• Act as barriers that regulate the
movement of water and solutes between
epithelial layers
• Prevent leakage of ECF.
CELL CYCLE
SPELLING
• Oxalotrophy • anabolism
• Electrotroph • Oligosaccharide
• Tachypnea • bile
• Angiomyogene • Bradypnea
sis • Pseudopseudohypo
• Angiostimulator parathyroidism
y
A cell cycle is a series of events that takes
place in a cell as it grows and divides. A cell
spends most of its time in what is called
interphase, and during this time it grows,
replicates its chromosomes, and prepares for
cell division. The cell then leaves interphase,
undergoes mitosis, and completes its division.
The resulting cells, known as daughter cells,
each enter their own interphase and begin a
The cell cycle is an ordered series of events
involving cell growth and cell division that produces
two new daughter cells. Cells on the path to cell
division proceed through a series of precisely timed and
carefully regulated stages of growth, DNA replication,
and division that produce two genetically identical
cells. ([Link]
cell-cycle/)
Cell cycle is the name we give the
process through which cells replicate
and make two new cells. Cell cycle has
different stages called G1, S, G2, and
M. G1 is the stage where the cell is
preparing to divide.
Two major phases
A. Interphase
During interphase, the cell undergoes
normal processes while also preparing
for cell division. For a cell to move from
interphase to the mitotic phase, many
internal and external conditions must be
met. The three stages of interphase are
called G1, S, and G2.
•the cell grows and makes a
copy of its DNA.
A.1 G1 Phase
The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase,
or first gap, because little change is visible. However,
during the G1 stage, the cell is quite active at the
biochemical level. The cell is accumulating the building
blocks of chromosomal DNA and the associated
proteins, as well as accumulating enough energy
reserves to complete the task of replicating each
chromosome in the nucleus.
• Make more Organelles
• Synthesizing Proteins and
Enzymes
• molecular building blocks it will
need in later steps.
A.2 S Phase
Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-
condensed chromatin configuration. In the S phase (synthesis
phase), DNA replication results in the formation of two
identical copies of each chromosome—sister chromatids—that
are firmly attached at the centromere region. At this stage, each
chromosome is made of two sister chromatids and is a
duplicated chromosome. The centrosome is duplicated during
the S phase.
The two centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic
spindle, the apparatus that orchestrates the movement of
chromosomes during mitosis. The centrosome consists of
a pair of rod-like centrioles at right angles to each other.
Centrioles help organize cell division. Centrioles are not
present in the centrosomes of many eukaryotic species,
such as plants and most fungi.
• DNA REPLICATION
DNA POLYMERASE
• duplicates a microtubule-
organizing structure called the
centrosome. The centrosomes help
separate DNA during M phase.
A.3 G2 Phase
In the G2 phase, or second gap, the cell replenishes its
energy stores and synthesizes the proteins necessary for
chromosome manipulation. Some cell organelles are duplicated,
and the cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide resources for the
mitotic spindle. There may be additional cell growth during G2.
The final preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed
before the cell is able to enter the first stage of mitosis.
• CELL GROWTH
• The cell grows more, makes
proteins and organelles,
2. Mitotic Phase
To make two daughter cells, the contents of the
nucleus and the cytoplasm must be divided. The mitotic
phase is a multistep process during which the duplicated
chromosomes are aligned, separated, and moved to
opposite poles of the cell, and then the cell is divided
into two new identical daughter cells.
Mitosis is a type of cell division in
which one cell (the mother) divides to
produce two new cells (the daughters)
that are genetically identical to itself. In
the context of the cell cycle, mitosis is
the part of the division process in which
the DNA of the cell's nucleus is split into
two equal sets of chromosomes.
The first portion of the mitotic phase, mitosis, is
composed of five stages, which accomplish nuclear
division. The second portion of the mitotic phase,
called cytokinesis, is the physical separation of the
cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells .
Mitosis
Mitosis is divided into a series of
phases—prophase, prometaphase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase—
that result in the division of the cell
nucleus
• GOAL of mitosis is to make sure that each
daughter cell gets a perfect, full set of
chromosomes. Cells with too few or too many
chromosomes usually don’t function well: they
may not survive, or they may even cause
cancer. So, when cells undergo mitosis, they
don’t just divide their DNA at random and toss it
into piles for the two daughter cells. Instead,
they split up their duplicated chromosomes in a
The G1 Checkpoint
• The G1 checkpoint determines whether all conditions are
favorable for cell division to proceed. The G1 checkpoint,
also called the restriction point (in yeast), is a point at
which the cell irreversibly commits to the cell division
process. External influences, such as growth factors, play a
large role in carrying the cell past the G1 checkpoint. In
addition to adequate reserves and cell size, there is a check
for genomic DNA damage at the G1 checkpoint. A cell that
does not meet all the requirements will not be allowed to
progress into the S phase. The cell can halt the cycle and
attempt to remedy the problematic condition, or the cell
can advance into G0 and await further signals when
The G2 Checkpoint
• The G2 checkpoint bars entry into the mitotic phase if
certain conditions are not met. As at the G1 checkpoint,
cell size and protein reserves are assessed. However,
the most important role of the G2 checkpoint is to
ensure that all of the chromosomes have been
replicated and that the replicated DNA is not damaged.
If the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the
DNA, the cell cycle is halted, and the cell attempts to
either complete DNA replication or repair the damaged
DNA.
The M Checkpoint
• The M checkpoint occurs near the end of the
metaphase stage of karyokinesis. The M
checkpoint is also known as the spindle
checkpoint, because it determines whether
all the sister chromatids are correctly
attached to the spindle microtubules.
Because the separation of the sister
chromatids during anaphase is an
irreversible step, the cycle will not proceed
until the kinetochores of each pair of sister
chromatids are firmly anchored to at least
1. What are the two stages of cell cycle? _______ ,
________
2. What are the two types of cell division? ______,
________
3. Fill out the table below with the events that take
place in each stage of interphase
STAGE EVENTS
What happens during each stage of
mitosis
Fill up the box below to show the proper sequence of the
stages of mitosis. Write your answer on a separate sheet of
paper
[Link]
• Chromosomes coil up and becomes visible
• The spindle is formed.
• The nuclear membrane begins to fade from
view ( dissolve)
• where chromatin condenses
• start appearing Microtubules organization
tubules
[Link]
• The chromosomes condense and become visible.
• The centrioles form and move toward opposite
ends of the cell ("the poles").
• The nuclear membrane dissolves.
• The mitotic spindle forms (from the centrioles in
animal cells).
Metaphase
• Chromosomes move to the center of
the cell and line up along the equator
• Chromatids line up along the equator.
• phase of mitosis is the last phase
that chromatids are together
ANAPHASE
• Centromere Divide (The sister chromatids
are moving apart.)
• Chromatids ( now called Chromosomes )
move toward opposite the spindle fiber
attach to them shorten pole
• centromeres divide and the chromosomes
move toward their respective poles
ANAPHASE
• Spindles attached to kinetochores begin to
shorten.
• This exerts a force on the sister chromatids
that pulls them apart.
• Spindle fibers continue to shorten, pulling
chromatids to opposite poles.
• This ensures that each daughter cell gets
identical sets of chromosomes
TELOPHASE
• Nuclear Envelope forms at each pole (A new
nuclear membrane is forming around the
chromosomes)
• Chromosomes uncoil Spindle Dissolve
• Cytokinesis Begins
• The cytoplasm of the cell is being divided
• The division (cleavage) furrow appears
• The cell plate is completed
Cytokinesis Divides the Cytoplasm
- In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process
known as cleavage furrow, a shallow groove near
the location of the old metaphase plate.
- Cytokinesis in plant cells is different because
plant cells have cell walls. There is no cleavage
furrow. During telophase, vesicles from the Golgi
apparatus move along microtubules to the middle
of the cell (where the cell plate was) and
coalesce, producing the cell plate.