THE CELLS OF
THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Frances Rachel Morales, M.A.
PSYC 3353
TOPICS
The cells of the nervous system
The nerve impulse
NEURONS & GLIA
NEURONS & GLIA
The human nervous system comprises two kinds of cells:
Neurons
Glia
The human brain contains approx 86 billion individual neurons
THE STRUCTURES OF AN
ANIMAL CELL
Like other cells in the body, neurons contain the following structures:
Membrane
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
THE STRUCTURE OF A
NEURON
All neurons include a soma (cell
body)
Most neurons have dendrites, an
axon, & presynaptic terminals
MOTOR NEURONS
Have its soma in the spinal cord
Receive excitation from other neurons
Conduct impulses along its axon to a muscle or gland
SENSORY NEURONS
Specialized at one end to be highly sensitive to a particular type of
stimulation
touch, light, sound, etc.
DENDRITES
Dendrites are branching fibers
Dendrites’ surface are lined with synaptic receptors
responsible for bringing information into the neuron
Some also contain dendritic spines that further branch
out and increase the surface area of the dendrite
The greater the surface area of the dendrite, the more
information it can receive
CELL BODY OR SOMA
Contains the nucleus, mitochondria, and ribosomes
Responsible for the metabolic work of the neuron
Covered with synapses on its surface in many neurons
AXONS
Thin fiber of a neuron responsible for transmitting nerve impulses toward
other neurons, organs, or muscles
Many are covered with an insulating material called a myelin sheath, that
contains interruptions known as nodes of Ranvier
Neurons can have only one axon, but the axon may have branches
Presynaptic terminals at the end points of an axon release chemicals to
communicate with other neurons
AXONS
Afferent axon: refers to bringing information into a structure
Efferent axon: refers to carrying information away from a structure
Interneurons or intrinsic neurons: are those whose dendrites and axons
are completely contained within a single structure
VARIATIONS AMONG
NEURONS
Neurons vary in size, shape, and function
The shape of a neuron determines it connection with other neurons
The function is closely related to the shape of a neuron
GLIA
Astrocytes
Wrap around the synapses of functionally related axons
Help synchronize the activity of the axon by wrapping around the
presynaptic terminal and taking up chemicals released by the axon
Responsible for dilating blood vessels to bring more nutrients into brain
areas with heightened activity
Microglia
Acts as part of the immune system
Remove waste material, viruses, and fungi from the brain
Also remove dead, dying, or damaged neurons
GLIA
Oligodendrocytes (in the brain and spinal cord) & Schwann cells (in the
periphery of the body)
Build the myelin sheath that surrounds and insulates certain vertebrate
axons
Supply axons with nutrients necessary for proper functioning
Radial glia
Guide the migration of neurons and the growth of their axons and dendrites
during embryonic development
When embryonic development finishes, most radial glia differentiate into
neurons and a smaller number differentiate into astrocytes and
oligodendrocytes
SHAPES OF SOME GLIA
CELLS
THE BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
A mechanism that surrounds the brain and blocks most chemicals from
entering
Depends on the endothelial cells that form the walls of the capillaries
Such cells are joined so tightly that they block viruses, bacteria, or other
harmful material from entering
The blood-brain barrier is essential to health
HOW THE BLOOD-BRAIN
BARRIER WORKS
Small, uncharged molecules such as O & CO cross
2 2
through the walls freely
Molecules that dissolve in the fats of the membrane
cross easily
Vitamins A & D, all drugs that affect the brain
Water crosses through special protein channels
Glucose, certain hormones, amino acids, and a few
vitamins are brought into the brain via active
transport
NOURISHMENT OF
VERTEBRATE NEURONS
Vertebrate neurons depend almost entirely on glucose
A sugar that is one of the few nutrients that can pass through the blood-brain
barrier
25% of glucose consumed by the body is used by the brain
Neurons need a steady supply of oxygen
20% of all oxygen consumed by the body is used by the brain
THE NERVE
IMPULSE
THE NERVE IMPULSE
The electrical message that is transmitted down the axon of a neuron
Does not travel directly down the axon, but is regenerated at points along the
axon so that it is not weakened
The speed of nerve impulses ranges from less than 1 m/sec to 100 m/sec
THE RESTING POTENTIAL OF
THE NEURON
Messages in a neuron develop from disturbances of the resting potential
At rest, the membrane maintains an electrical gradient known as
polarization
A difference in the electrical charge inside and outside of the cell
The inside of the membrane is slightly negative with respect to the outside
(approximately 70 millivolts)
The resting potential of a neuron refers to the state of the neuron prior
to the sending of a nerve impulse
FORCES ACTING ON
SODIUM & POTASSIUM IONS
The membrane is selectively permeable, allowing some chemicals to pass
more freely than others
Sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride ions pass through channels in
the membrane
When the membrane is at rest:
Sodium channels are closed
Potassium channels are partially closed allowing the slow passage of potassium
THE SODIUM-POTASSIUM
PUMP
The sodium-potassium pump is a protein complex
Continually pumps three sodium ions out of the cells while drawing two
potassium ions into the cell
Helps to maintain the electrical gradient
Uses active transport (requires ATP)
When sodium ions are pumped out, they stay out.
However, potassium ions in the neuron slowly leak out, carrying a positive
charge with them, increasing the electrical gradient across the membrane
SODIUM AND POTASSIUM
GRADIENTS FOR A RESTING
MEMBRANE
THE ACTION POTENTIAL
The resting potential remains stable until the neuron is stimulated
Hyperpolarization: increasing the polarization or the difference between
the electrical charge of two places
Depolarization: decreasing the polarization toward zero
The threshold of excitation: a level above which any stimulation
produces a massive depolarization
The action potential threshold varies from one neuron to another, but is
consistent for each neuron
Stimulation of the neuron past the threshold of excitation triggers a nerve
impulse or action potential
All-or-none law: for a given neuron, all action potential are approximately
equal in intensity and velocity
THE MOLECULAR BASIS OF
THE ACTION POTENTIAL
The axon channels regulating sodium & potassium are voltage-gated
channels
Membrane channels whose permeability depends upon the voltage difference
across the membrane
As the membrane becomes depolarized, both the sodium & potassium
channels are opened, allowing freer flow
Positively charged sodium ions rush in and a subsequent nerve impulse
occurs
After an action potential occurs, sodium channels are quickly closed
The neuron is returned to its resting state by the opening of potassium
channels
Potassium ions flow out due to the concentration gradient and take with them
their positive charge
The sodium-potassium pump later restores the original distribution of ions
PROPAGATION OF THE
ACTION POTENTIAL
Describes the transmission of the action potential down the
axon
The action potential does not directly travel down
the axon
THE MYELIN SHEATH &
SALTATORY CONDUCTION
Myelin is an insulating material composed of fats &
proteins
The myelin sheath is interrupted by short
unmyelinated sections called nodes of Ranvier
At each node of Ranvier, the action potential is
regenerated
By a chain of positively charged ions pushed along by the
previous segment
The “jumping” of the action potential from node to
node is referred to as saltatory conduction
Provides rapid conduction of impulses
Conserves energy for the cell
THE REFRACTORY PERIOD
After an action potential, a neuron has a refractory period during which
time the neuron resists the production of another action potential
The absolute refractory period: the first part of the period in which the
membrane cannot produce an action potential
The relative refractory period: the second part, in which it takes a
stronger than usual stimulus to trigger an action potential
LOCAL NEURONS
Do not have axons, exchange information with only close neighbors, and do
not produce action potentials
When stimulated, produces graded potentials—membrane potentials
that vary in magnitude and do not follow the all-or-none law
Depolarize or hyperpolarize in proportion to the stimulation