GENETICS,

EVOLUTION,
DEVELOPMENT, &
PLASTICITY
Frances Rachel Morales, M.A.
PSYC 3353
TOPICS
 Genetics and evolution of behavior
 Development of the brain
 Plasticity after brain damage
GENETICS &
EVOLUTION OF
BEHAVIOR
MENDELIAN GENETICS
Genes
 Units of heredity that maintain their structural identity from one
generation to another
 Are a portion of a chromosome (strand of genes)
 Composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
 Come in pairs, called alleles, because they are aligned along
chromosomes
 Contain four ”bases” – adenine, guanine, cytosine, & thymine
MENDELIAN GENETICS
 DNA serves as a model for the synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA)
 RNA is a single strand chemical
 messenger RNA serve as a template/model for the synthesis of proteins
 Proteins determine the development of the body by:
 Forming part of the structure of the body
 Serving as enzymes, biological catalysts that regulate chemical reactions in the
body
HOW DNA CONTROLS THE
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ORGANISM
MENDELIAN GENETICS
 Being homozygous for a gene means that a person has the same genes
on the two copies of some chromosome
 Being heterozygous for a gene means that a person has an unmatched
pair of genes on the two chromosomes
 Genes are either dominant, recessive, or intermediate
 A dominant gene shows a strong effect in either the homozygous or
heterozygous condition
 A recessive gene shows its effect only in the homozygous condition
 An intermediate gene occurs in a phenotype where there is incomplete
dominance in the heterozygous condition
SEX-LINKED & SEX-LIMITED
GENES
 Autosomal genes – all other genes except for sex-linked genes
 Sex-linked genes – genes located on the sex chromosomes
 In mammals, the sex chromosomes are designated X & Y
 Females have two X chromosomes (XX)
 Males have an X and a Y chromosome (XY)
 The Y chromosome has genes for far fewer proteins than the X
chromosome
 Thus, sex-linked genes usually refer to X-linked genes

 Sex-limited genes are genes that are present in both sexes but mainly
have an effect on one sex
GENETIC CHANGES
 Genes change in several ways
 Mutation – a heritable change in a DNA molecule
 Microduplication/microdeletion – part of a chromosome that ordinarily
appears once might instead appear twice or not at all
EPIGENETICS
 A field that is concerned with changes in gene expression without the
modification of the DNA sequence
 Some genes are active only at a certain point in one’s life, a certain time of
day, etc.
 Epigenetic differences are a likely explanation for differences between
monozygotic “identical” twins
 Various experiences can turn a gene on or off
 Epigenetic changes can be inherited, at least for a generation or two
HEREDITY & ENVIRONMENT
 Heritability – whether variations in some characteristic depend largely on
genetic differences
 Ranges from zero indicating no genetic contribution to the variation
 To one, indicating complete control

 Researchers study heritability by:

 Comparing monozygotic & dizygotic twins
 Studying adopted children and their resemblance to their biological parents
 Identifying specific genes linked to some behavior using the candidate gene
approach
 Researchers have found evidence for heritability in almost every behavior
they have tested
 Heritability of a certain trait is specific to a given population
 Strong environmental influences may cause genetic influences to have less of an
effect
THE EVOLUTION OF
BEHAVIOR
 Evolution – a change over generations in the frequencies of various genes
in a population
 We distinguish two questions about Evolution:
 How did some species evolve?
 Based on inferences from fossils/comparisons of living species
 How do species evolve?
HOW DO SPECIES EVOLVE?
 Organisms’ varied offspring compete for survival
 Mutations, recombination, & microduplications of genes introduce new
heritable variations
 Certain biological & behavioral variations increase organisms’ survival &
reproductive chances
 Offspring that survive are more likely to pass their genes on
 Populations characteristics change
 Artificial selection
COMMON
MISUNDERSTANDINGS
ABOUT EVOLUTION
 Does the use or disuse of some structure or behavior cause an evolutionary
increase or decrease in that feature?
 Have humans stopped evolving?
 Does evolution mean “improvement”?
 Does evolution benefit the individual or the species?
EVOLUTIONARY
PSYCHOLOGY
 Concerns how behaviors evolved
 Major assumption is that any behavior characteristic of a species arouse
through natural selection
DEVELOPMENT
OF
THE BRAIN
MATURATION OF THE
VERTEBRATE BRAIN
Begins to form when the embryo is approximately 2-weeks old
 The dorsal surface thickens, forming a neural tube surrounding a fluid filled cavity
 The forward end enlarges and differentiates into the hindbrain, midbrain, and
forebrain
 The rest of the neural tube becomes the spinal cord
MATURATION OF THE
VERTEBRATE BRAIN
 At birth, the human brain weighs approx 350 grams
 By the first year, the brain weighs approx 1,000 grams
 The adult brain weighs 1,200-1,400 grams
 In early infancy, the primary sensory areas of the cortex are more mature
than the rest of the cortex
 The greatest changes over the first couple of years happen in the
prefrontal cortex and other cortical areas responsible for attention, working
memory, and decision making
 These areas continue to mature through the teenage years and beyond
GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
OF NEURONS
Neuroscientists distinguish several stages in the development of neurons
 Proliferation
 Migration
 Differentiation
 Myelination
 Synaptogenesis
NEW NEURONS LATER IN
LIFE
 Originally believed that no new neurons were formed after early
development
 Later research suggests otherwise
 Stem cells: undifferentiated cells found in the interior of the brain that generate
“daughter cells” that can transform into glia or neurons
 New olfactory receptors also continually replace dying ones

 Stem cells differentiate into new neurons in the adult hippocampus &
basal ganglia, facilitating learning
DETERMINANTS OF NEURAL
SURVIVAL
 All areas of the developing nervous system make more neurons than will
survive into adulthood
 Neurotrophins are chemicals that promote the survival and activity of
neurons (i.e., NGF, BDNF)
 Axons that are not exposed to neurotrophins after making connections
undergo apoptosis – a preprogrammed mechanism of cell death
 Each brain area has a period of massive cell death
 Indicates maturation
THE VULNERABLE
DEVELOPING BRAIN
 Early stages of brain development are critical for normal development later
in life
 The brain is highly vulnerable to malnutrition, alcohol, toxic chemicals, &
infections
 The developing brain is also highly responsive to many influences from the
mother
 Stressful experiences, impoverishment, abuse
FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME
 A condition that children are born with if the mother drinks heavily during
pregnancy
 Marked by:
 Hyperactivity and impulsiveness
 Difficulty maintaining attention
 Varying degrees of mental retardation
 Motor problems and heart defects
 Facial abnormalities
FINE-TUNING BY
EXPERIENCE
Impoverished environment vs enriched environment
 Enriched environment  Thicker cortex, more dendritic branching, &
improved learning
 Much of enhancement due to physical activity
 Physical activity also beneficial for brain functioning in humans as in lab
animals
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL
EXPERIENCES
 Blind people improve their attention to touch & sound, based on practice
 The occipital lobe normally dedicated to processing visual information
adapts to also process tactile & verbal information
 Deaf people become more responsive to touch & vision
 Touch & vision come to activate what would be the auditory cortex in
deaf people
EFFECTS OF SPECIAL
EXPERIENCES
Music training
 The temporal lobe of professional musicians in the right hemisphere is 30%
larger than non-musicians
 Thicker gray matter in the part of the brain responsible for hand control
and vision of professional musicians
 Results suggest that practicing a skill reorganizes the brain to maximize
performance of that skill
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT &
BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT
Adolescents
 Adolescents are regarded as impulsive and prone to seek immediate
pleasure
 Many studies have found that adolescents show weaker responses than
adults in the areas of the prefrontal cortex responsible for inhibiting
behaviors
 However, a more likely explanation for risky adolescent behavior is that the
brain’s response to rewards and anticipation of rewards increases strongly
during teenage years
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT &
BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT
Old age
 Many neurons lose their synapses, and the remaining synapses change
more slowly than before in response to experiences
 Brain structures begin to lose volume
 However…
 People vary in respect to intellectual decline
 Older people have a greater base of knowledge and experience
 Many find ways to compensate for losses
PLASTICITY
AFTER
BRAIN DAMAGE
BRAIN DAMAGE & SHORT-
TERM RECOVERY
Possible causes of brain damage
 Tumors
 Infections
 Exposure to toxic substances or radiation
 Degenerative diseases
 Closed head injuries
REDUCING THE HARM FROM
A STROKE
 Stroke or cerebrovascular accident – temporary loss of blood flow to the
brain
 Common cause of brain damage in elderly

 Ischemia – the most common type of stroke, resulting from a blood clot or
obstruction of an artery
 Neurons lose their oxygen and glucose supply

 Hemorrhage – a less frequent type of stroke resulting from a ruptured

artery
 Neurons are flooded with excess blood, calcium, oxygen, and other chemicals

 Edema – the accumulation of fluid in the brain resulting in increased

pressure on the brain and increasing the probability of further strokes
 Disruption of the sodium-potassium pump leading to the accumulation of potassium
ions inside neurons and ultimately result in damage to neurons & synapses
IMMEDIATE TREATMENTS
 A drug called tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) breaks up blood clots and
can reduce the effects of an ischemic strokes
 Research has begun to attempt to save neurons from death by blocking:
 Glutamate synapses
 Calcium entry

 Cannabinoids have also been shown to potentially minimize cell loss after a
brain stroke
LATER MECHANISMS OF
RECOVERY
Following brain damage, surviving brain areas increase or reorganize their
activity
 Increased brain stimulation
 Regrowth of axons
 Axon sprouting
 Denervation Supersensitivity
 Reorganized Sensory Representations and the Phantom Limb
 Learned Adjustments in Behavior
REORGANIZED SENSORY
REPRESENTATIONS AND THE PHANTOM
LIMB
 Phantom limb – the continuation of sensation of an amputated body part
 The cortex reorganizes itself after the amputation of a body part by
becoming responsive to other parts of the body
 Original axons degenerate leaving vacant synapses into which others
axons sprout
 The phantom limb can lead to the feeling of sensations in the amputated
part of the body when other parts of the body are stimulated