UNIT IV

STRESS CONDITIONS

Kalaivani K
Assistant Professor
Department Of Chemical Engineering
Kongu Engineering College
 HIGH TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
Mechanical Effects
● High-temperature tends to force the selection of expensive materials of construction.
● Whenever possible, the materials selection engineer should review the design data or
design basis to see if there is opportunity to justify reducing the maximum design
temperature.

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● Most metals and alloys exhibit a temperature above which the grain boundaries
become weaker than the grains themselves. This temperature is the threshold
temperature above which the material is susceptible to creep.
● For metals and alloys at temperatures less than their creep thresholds, strain is not
time-dependent for constant stress. However, at temperatures above the creep
threshold, creep can occur.
 Mechanical Effects
● Creep is defined as time-dependent strain at constant stress—or, stated another way,
the strain rate is greater than 0 for a stress rate of 0.
● In the creep range, stresses above the creep threshold cause the nucleation and
propagation of grain boundary voids.

The three stages of creep

 Mechanical Effects
● In primary creep, the material plastically deforms while undergoing rapid
work hardening. No significant damage is generated.
● During secondary creep, grain boundary yielding produces local work hardening and
the nucleation of grain boundary voids. During tertiary creep, the grain boundary
voids link up and gross necking or thinning develops.
● Tertiary creep ends in an exponentially accelerating strain rate, rapidly leading to
fracture. Fracture by this phenomenon is called stress rupture.
● The lower (threshold) end of the creep temperature range for carbon steel is about
750°F (400°C).
● The Cr-Mo steels have creep threshold temperatures of about 900°F (480°C) and
higher. The conventional austenitic stainless steels have creep threshold temperatures
of 1050 to 1100°F (565 to 595°C).
 Mechanical Effects
[Link] Rupture
● If sustained maximum operating temperatures will create significant creep strain, the
component is at risk of failure by stress rupture, typically associated with tertiary
creep.
● Stress rupture design includes “safety” factors intended to define inspection intervals
and/or schedule replacement before the onset of tertiary creep.
● In typical stress rupture designs, the design life of the component is the expected
period of secondary creep. During secondary creep, component dimensions such as
tube diameter and length slowly increase. In wrought materials, secondary creep
strains of 10 to 20 percent are not uncommon.
● In the high-temperature cast materials such as HK-40 (25Cr-20Ni; UNS J94204),
secondary creep strains are usually on the order of 2 to 3 percent.
● When operating in the creep range, care must be taken to avoid temperature or stress
excursions; of the two, temperature excursions are by far the more damaging. A 50°F
(28°C) excursion can easily reduce the operating life by 50 percent or more.
 Mechanical Effects

● Furnaces and heaters are about the only equipment having both temperatures and
stresses high enough to require creep to be taken into account during plant design.
Refer to the section “High-Temperature Alloys” for a discussion of creep design.
● Thermal fatigue produces fractures that are virtually identical to creep failures.
Maximum code-allowable stresses are high enough to permit thermal fatigue.
Accordingly, if thermal cycles are a feature of equipment design (such as for coke
drums), thermal fatigue analysis is usually recommended.
 Metallurgical Effects
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● Conventional stainless steels, both austenitic 300-series alloys and the straight
chromium grades such as Types 405 and 410 SS, can be subject to intergranular
corrosion or cracking as a result of a phenomenon called sensitization.
● Sensitization refers to the precipitation of chromium carbides in the grain boundaries
of the alloy as a result of exposure to temperatures in the range of 800 to 1600°F (425
to 870°C). As the chromium carbides develop, the nearby metal becomes depleted in
dissolved chromium. This creates a zone adjacent to the grain boundary of locally
corrosion susceptible iron-nickel alloy. In the case of the straight chromium grades,
the local composition may approach that of plain carbon steel. Not only does a
chromium-depleted zone have less corrosion resistance than the adjacent unaffected
alloy, but the two can interact galvanically. Such action can significantly accelerate
intergranular corrosion rates.
 Metallurgical Effects

● There is some controversy over the lower threshold temperature that causes
sensitization. However, for solution-annealed austenitic stainless steels, sensitization
at temperatures less than about 850°F (455°C) appears to require extremely long
exposure times. Cold-worked austenitic stainless steels are reported to sensitize at
temperatures as low as 700°F (370°C).
● Sensitization occurs most rapidly when the temperature is about 1500°F (815°C). For
example, welding alone can sensitize the heat affected zones in non-stabilized
stainless steels that are not of a low-carbon composition. Sensitization can be caused
in non-stabilized alloys by cooling too slowly from a solution-annealing or stress
relief heat treatment.
 Metallurgical Effects

Sensitized Type 304 stainless steel

Sensitization can cause two types of corrosion problems,

1. weld rusting
2. intergranular corrosion
Weld Rusting :
● Mildly acidic liquids can cause the locally chromium-depleted iron-nickel alloy to
slowly rust. An example of this problem is weld metal rusting of stainless steel by
dew (containing dissolved CO2) condensing on the outside of a pipe.
● While normally this is only an aesthetic problem, in some contamination sensitive
processes or aesthetic applications, such rusting is unacceptable.
 Metallurgical Effects
● If chlorides are involved, such corrosion may become aggressive due to the formation
of ferric chloride.
Intergranular corrosion:
● Some fluids, including most oxidizing acids, will cause intergranular corrosion in the
chromium-depleted region of sensitized grain boundaries. For sensitized welds in
austenitic stainless steels, this form of corrosion is sometimes called “weld decay.”
● Example of this problem,

Intergranular corrosion in a sensitized

stainless steel
 Metallurgical Effects
● In some cases, intergranular attack is stress related and is more properly referred to as
intergranular stress corrosion cracking.
● The most common fluid causing intergranular corrosion in hydrocarbon plants is
polythionic acid. Both austenitic and straight chromium grades of stainless steels can
be attacked by polythionic acid. This phenomenon is usually an internal problem,
occurring on the process-exposed side of a piping run, vessel shell, exchanger bundle,
heater tube, etc.
● The phenomenon usually starts with the stainless steel surface forming a thin iron
sulfide film, because of exposure to small amounts of sulfur, usually from hydrogen
sulfide, in the process stream.
● During a shutdown, in the presence of air and liquid water, often dew point water, the
sulfides convert to polythionic acid.
● The polythionic acid then corrodes the chromium-depleted grain boundaries of the
sensitized alloy. Since stainless steels are usually supplied to fabricators in the
solution-annealed condition, sensitization is usually confined to weld heat affected
 Metallurgical Effects
Process controls can be used to protect sensitized equipment from polythionic attack:
● Prevent air ingress. The system is kept sealed and at a positive pressure to ensure that
any leaks that do occur are from the inside to the outside
● Prevent the formation or ingress o f liquid water. Prior to shutdown, the system is
usually purged with a dry inert gas such as nitrogen and is then kept under a slightly
positive pressure to ensure that any leaks are from the inside to the outside.
● Use a neutralizing wash Both ammonia and soda ash solutions are used, with the
latter the more common. Refer to NACE RP0170 “Protection of Austenitic Stainless
Steel from Polythionic Acid Stress Corrosion Cracking During Shutdown of Refinery
Equipment”.
● Several metallurgical methods have been developed to address the problem of
intergranular corrosion caused by sensitization:
○ Low-Carbon Grades
○ Chemically Stabilized Alloys
○
 Metallurgical Effects
2. Spheroidization and Graphitization of Carbon Steels
● Spheroidization and graphitization can occur in carbon and C-V2M 0 steels at high-
temperature. Low-alloy steels with chromium contents of about 0.7 wt. percent or
more are considered immune to these effects.
● Spheroidization and graphitization occur at temperatures above 850°F (455°C). Since
most users avoid the selection of carbon steels for use above 800°F (425°C), the
effects of these two mechanisms are often not considered. However, many plants use
carbon steel lined with refractory for high-temperature services.
● Refractory failures occasionally expose these carbon steels to temperatures
substantially in excess of 800°F (425°C).
● Iron carbide (cementite: Fe3C), one of the primary components of carbon steel, is
thermodynamically unstable. However, its rate of decomposition in carbon and C-
V2M 0 steels is negligible at temperatures less than 850°F (455°C).
 Metallurgical Effects

● The rate of decomposition begins to accelerate at temperatures exceeding 850°F

(455°C). Like most high-temperature, diffusion-controlled phenomena, the rate is
exponentially related to temperature. At 900°F (480°C), 50 percent conversion to
graphite occurs in about 10,000 hours. At 1100°F (595°C), the conversion time is
only about 1000 hours.
● The process of iron carbide decomposing to form iron and graphite is called
graphitization.
● Decomposition is accompanied by a moderate reduction in the strength of the steel.
This reduction will accelerate the formation of creep damage if the applied stress is
large enough to cause creep.
● Decomposition of the iron carbide can “embrittle” the steel if the graphite that
develops forms a continuous (or closely spaced discontinuous) band. Ruptures have
occurred from this cause, most frequently in C-^M o steels. This alloy is no longer
being recommended as a material of construction for high-temperature services.
 Metallurgical Effects

● Aluminum-killed steels are more susceptible to graphitization than are silicon-killed

steels such as ASTM A515. Silicon-killed steels are preferred for high-temperature
services.
● Spheroidization refers to the formation of spheroids of iron carbide from the normal
microstructure, pearlite. The mechanism occurs at temperatures above 900°F
(480°C), again at rates which are exponential with temperature. However, for
sustained high-temperatures, graphitization becomes the dominant mechanism.
● Unless carried to extremes by prolonged exposures at high-temperatures,
spheroidization is often regarded as beneficial, since it greatly improves the impact
toughness of carbon steel with only a minor loss of strength.
● Normalizing a pearlitic carbon steel causes partial spheroidization, resulting in
improved toughness. Too much spheroidization will cause an unacceptable loss of
strength
 Metallurgical Effects

● The user should be wary of requests to allow multiple normalizations and/or post
weld heat treatments.
● Above 850°F (455°C), prolonged exposure causes carbon steels to lose strength; they
can become susceptible to stress rupture if the stress is large enough.
● Above 1000°F (540°C), oxidation and spalling can occur, further enhancing the risk
of early failure.
● In general, it is safe to tolerate short-term excursions to 1000°F (540°C) if the applied
stress is less than the maximum code-allowable stress. Even short-term excursions
above 1000°F (540°C) should be avoided unless the applied stresses are very small.
 Chemical Effects
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● Carburization refers to the development of a carbide-rich layer on the surface of a
material exposed to a reducing hydrocarbon environment. This phenomenon is
associated with high-temperature service or, in some cases, to high-temperature
excursions.
● Carburization of carbon and low-alloy steels is rare since they are not normally
subjected to operating temperatures high enough to induce carburization. Mild
carburization of ordinary 300-series austenitic stainless steels is sometimes observed
since they can be used at temperatures high enough to see low rates of carburization.
● In refineries it is sometimes observed in the plenum of a fluid catalytic cracking unit.
Special alloys such as the Alloy 800 series (20Cr-32Ni, with Ti and Al; UNS
N08800/8810/8811) or HP-Mod. are usually specified for use in carburizing
atmospheres at high-temperatures, for example, the cracking tubes in an ethylene
furnace.
 Chemical Effects

● Carburization can cause premature failures or contribute to such failures. Failure is

often caused by cracking due to the large difference in the coefficients of thermal
expansion between the parent alloy and the carburized layer. Such cracking causes
the carburized layer to disbond, thereby exposing fresh material to subsequently
carburize.
● Thermal cycling is the normal cause of such failures. Metal loss is the form of failure
in a carburization mechanism known as metal dusting, which can occur very rapidly.
● This very limited mechanism involves process streams with C 0 /C 0 2 ratios on the
order of 3 to 5, at temperatures in the range 1200-1550°F (650-845°C), usually
involving Fe-Cr and Fe-Cr-Ni alloys having a chromium content of 25 percent or less.
● Metal dusting usually causes smooth, circular pits, typically worst in stagnant areas.
In some cases, pitting damage is general, resulting in overall surface wastage.
● When selecting materials for high-temperature hydrocarbon services, the potential for
carburization should be determined.
 Chemical Effects
● Process licensors usually provide excellent guidance for materials selection. Alloy
manufacturers can also provide excellent advice. If carburization is anticipated, it is
normal practice to provide a nominal carburization allowance.

[Link] ash corrosion

● Some fuels, particularly low-grade fuel oils, contain elements that can cause
accelerated high-temperature corrosion. The major culprits are vanadium and sodium.
At temperatures above about 1200°F (650°C), vanadium oxide vapor and sodium
sulfate react to form sodium vanadate, which in turn can react with metal oxides on
the surfaces of heater tubes, hangers, tubesheets, etc.
● The resulting slag can become a low-melting eutectic mixture, acting as a flux. (A
flux is a molten solvent for metal oxides.) The slag dissolves protective metal oxides
and prevents their reformation.
 Chemical Effects
● The mechanism is further accelerated by the presence of sulfur in the fuel. Sulfur
contributes to the problem both by sulfidation and by an additional lowering of the
melting point of the vanadium oxide flux. Concentration thresholds for fuel ash attack
are not well defined.
● However, concentrations less than 5 ppmw vanadium appear to have little effect.
Concentrations up to about 20 ppmw are safe as long as the maximum metal
temperature is less than about 1550°F (845°C). The safe maximum metal temperature
for concentrations in excess of 20 ppmw vanadium appears to be 1200°F (650°C).
● Virtually all alloys are susceptible to fuel ash corrosion. However, alloys rich in
nickel and chromium (50Cr-50Ni) offer good protection. Reducing the amount of
excess air to less than 5 percent has been used to control fuel ash corrosion
successfully.
● The rate of corrosion decreases at very low excess air concentrations. A wide variety
of complex vapor deposition coatings have been developed for protecting
components such as turbine blades from this type of attack. Vapor deposition coatings
 High-Temperature Alloys
● Conventional 300-series stainless steels are useful in many services up to about
1500°F (815°C). Above this temperature, their maximum code-allowable stresses are
too low for most practical long term non-creep designs.
● Higher chromium-nickel conventional austenitic stainless steels such as Types 309
and 310 SS do find use in low-stress applications such as shrouds used as refractory
liners and flare tip applications, up to about 2000°F (1095°C).
● The 18Cr-8Ni stainless steels become susceptible to oxidation and spalling at
temperatures above about 1650°F (900°C).
● At higher temperatures the minimum chromium content for reliable resistance to
oxidation is 25 to 28 percent, depending on alloying additions such as aluminum and
silicon.
● For moderate stress service, there are several high-nickel alloys for which
conventional engineering codes provide maximum allowable stresses useful for non-
creep design. The Alloy 800 series is an example.
 High-Temperature Alloys
● There are a few conventional alloys that can withstand oxidation at temperatures up
to about 2200°F (1205°C), usually because of relatively high silicon content.
However, for most applications above 2050°F (1120°C), either ceramics or
engineered materials are required.
● An example of the latter are the coated and internally cooled alloy blades that are
used in high-performance combustion gas turbines.
These alloys do have some disadvantages:
➔ Even when new, they are usually brittle, preventing their being used in fabrication
procedures requiring forging, rolling, drawing, etc.
➔ In service, most of them become even more brittle as they age, the result of the
formation of brittle intermetallic compounds. Aged alloys are often impossible to
repair by welding.
➔ They usually require special welding procedures, as they are unusually prone to
cracking induced by welding.
 CORROSION
Major Corrodents

1. Acids, General
● Acids are often classified as oxidizing or non-oxidizing
● Materials selection for acids and their derivative compounds depends on whether they
are reducing or oxidizing
● The corrosivity of the solution often depends on the presence of strong oxidizing salts
such as ferric chloride (FeCl3) or cupric chloride (CuCl2). Both salts are also strong
pitting agents.
● Oxide-stabilized corrosion resistant materials perform well in the presence of
oxidizing acids. Examples include the refractory metals such as titanium, the
austenitic stainless steels and Ni-Cr-Mo alloys such as Alloy 20 Cb-3, Alloy C-276
(15Cr-54Ni-16Mo; UNS N 10276), Alloy 625 (22Cr60Ni-9Mo-Cb; UNS N06625)
and Alloy 825.
 CORROSION

● When austenitic stainless steels are selected for acid service, it is conventional to
specify the low carbon grade, that is, the “L” grade. Many acids will attack the
sensitized band in the weld heat affected zones of the conventional grades.

In surveying materials for a specific application, keep in mind the following alternatives:
➔ Non-metallic materials such as fiber-reinforced plastics are available for both piping
and for most equipment such as vessels, tanks and pumps.
➔ Liners such as rubber, polymer or glass are frequently cost effective. Plastic-lined
piping is a common choice in acid systems.
➔ Cladding and/or weld overlays, using carbon or low-alloy steel for pressure
containment and a corrosion resistant alloy for corrosion resistance, are sometimes
used.
 CORROSION

2. Inorganic Acids
● Hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, nitric, sulfuric and phosphoric acids account for most of
the strong inorganic acids encountered in hydrocarbon and chemical process plants.
● Hydrochloric, hydrofluoric and phosphoric acids are non oxidizing. Nitric acid is a
strong oxidizer.
● Sulfuric acid can be either oxidizing or non-oxidizing, depending on temperature and
concentration.
● Sulfuric acid becomes increasingly oxidizing at concentrations of about 25 wt.
percent and higher. Below 25 percent, the uncontaminated acid is regarded as non-
oxidizing.
 CORROSION
Sulfuric Acid :
➔ Carbon steel is normally used for storage tanks and sometimes for piping for sulfuric
acid at concentrations of 70 wt. percent and above, at temperatures up to 104°F
(40°C).
➔ Typical industrial concentrations are 93 and 97 percent. The selection of carbon steel
depends on controlling velocities to less than about three ft/sec (0.9 m/s).
➔ The velocity limitation is critical, since successful use of carbon steel depends on not
disturbing the protective, but non-adherent, soft, insoluble iron sulfate scale layer.

Hydrochloric Acid :
➔ This acid is destructive to all conventional carbon, low-alloy and stainless steels,
unless it is inhibited. Inhibited 5 to 15 wt. percent acid is used at low velocities for
cleaning carbon steel piping and equipment.
 CORROSION
➔ Nickel and nickel alloys are required for even moderate corrosion resistance. In
common with other reducing acids, aeration and/or the presence of oxidizing
impurities can profoundly change the corrosivity of the acid.
Hydrofluoric Acid :
➔ Carbon steel is commonly used for the storage and piping of non-aerated hydrofluoric
acids, at concentrations of 70 wt. percent or more, for temperatures up to 90°F
(32°C).
➔ The resistance of carbon steel in this service depends on the formation of a stable
surface film of non-adherent iron fluoride.
➔ Hydrofluoric acid can cause hydrogen embrittlement, hydrogen stress cracking,
hydrogen induced cracking damage and stress oriented hydrogen induced cracking in
carbon steels.
➔ Hydrofluoric acid in various concentrations and temperatures can be handled by
fiber-reinforced plastics, liners such as rubber and polymers and by plastic-lined pipe.
 CORROSION
Nitric Acid :
➔ Carbon and low-alloy steels are not suitable materials of construction for nitric acid
service. Fourteen wt. percent silicon cast iron (see ASTM A518) is very resistant to
concentrations exceeding about 45 percent, up to the boiling point.
➔ Nitric acid corrosion of Type 304L SS can be accelerated by the presence of
hexavalent chromium ions. The process chemistry should be reviewed to prevent
conditions that could lead to the production and/or deposition of this contaminant.
➔ Nitric acid in various concentrations and temperatures can be handled by fiber-
reinforced plastics, liners such as rubber, polymers and glass- and plastic lined pipe.
Phosphoric Acid :
Type 316L SS is the conventional material of construction for pure phosphoric acid at
concentrations up to 85 wt. percent and temperatures up to 200°F (93°C).
 CORROSION

➔ Higher alloys such as Alloy 20 Cb-3 and Alloy 825 are resistant to concentrations up
to 85 percent of the pure acid, up to the boiling point.
➔ In the manufacture of phosphoric acid, contaminants dominate materials selection.
Higher alloys such as Alloy 20 Cb-3, Alloy 625 and Alloy C-276, are commonly
used. The high chromium duplex stainless steels such as Alloy 2507 (25Cr-7Ni-4Mo;
UNS S32750) also find extensive use in this service.
➔ There are numerous non-metallics such as fiber reinforced plastics and liners such as
rubber, polymers and glass, as well as plastic-lined pipe, available for phosphoric
acid service
 CORROSION
3. Organic Acids
● Organic acids and their derivative compounds can pose serious corrosion problems in
plant piping and equipment. Organic acids are electrolytes; they do not require free
water to be corrosive.
● Organic acids, their esters and anhydrides are common commodities in many
chemical process plants; they range in corrosivity from mild to aggressive. Organic
acids and/or their derivative compounds are created as byproducts or contaminants in
many chemical process and hydrocarbon plant operations. Naphthenic acids are
occasionally a corrodent in crude oils, primarily as they move through the
atmospheric and vacuum distillation columns in refineries
● Most organic acids are weak and non-oxidizing. Nevertheless, some can be quite
corrosive. The corrosivity of organic acids usually increase with aeration and the
presence of oxidizing contaminants.
 CORROSION
● The corrosivity of most organic acids increases at elevated temperatures; naphthenic
acid is an example.
● Anhydrous organic acids are reported to be generally much more corrosive than if
they contain even traces of water. In general, the corrosivity of an acid family
decreases as the molecular weight increases.
● Examples for organic acids are
1. Acetic Acid
2. Formic Acid
3. Fatty Acids
4. Di- and Tricarboxilic Acids
5. Naphthenic Acids
 CORROSION
Stress Corrosion Cracking
● Failures due to stress corrosion cracking (SCC), while not common, may occur
without warning, and when they do occur, they may have catastrophic consequences.
In evaluating the risks of stress corrosion cracking, keep in mind that safety may be a
central issue.
● Each type of stress corrosion cracking requires very specific coincident conditions in
order for the mechanism to produce cracks. Such conditions include a susceptible
material and the appropriate combination of stress, temperature, crack-inducing
agent, pH, aeration, etc.
● For example, chloride stress corrosion cracking of austenitic stainless steels can be
quite dependent on the presence of dissolved oxygen. Sometimes, stress corrosion
cracking can be avoided simply by applying practical knowledge of the mechanism,
for instance, keeping oxygen out of saline waters that could otherwise cause chloride
cracking of austenitic stainless steel.
 CORROSION
Stress Corrosion Cracking

● There are at least three types of stress corrosion cracking:

● Hydrogen stress cracking (e.g., sulfide stress cracking).
● Anodic stress cracking phenomena such as alkaline stress cracking of carbon
steels and chloride stress cracking of austenitic stainless steels.
● Intergranular stress cracking
● Stress corrosion cracking is usually associated with the residual stress fields of welds,
although cracking can occur in stressed or cold-worked parent metal.
● It has been shown that the development of a stress corrosion crack requires the
presence of a tensile stress. Such cracking does not occur with shear or compressive
stresses. Most forms of stress corrosion cracking depend on the presence of an
electrolyte, usually liquid water, containing the crack-inducing agent.
 CORROSION
Stress Corrosion Cracking

● It is common practice to specify special metallurgical and fabrication requirements

to prevent or minimize the risk of stress corrosion cracking in pressure retaining
services. The three most common measures are hardness controls, normalizing, and
postweld treatment.
 CORROSION
Wet Sour Services

● Wet sour services are common in the hydrocarbon producing and processing
industries. The major concern for such services is the various forms of hydrogen
cracking produced by wet hydrogen sulfide corrosion.
● Various types of wet sour services:
Low-risk service
● Low-risk service applies to metals and alloys in wet sour services for which the
maximum design pressure is less than 65 psia (0.45 MPa).
Simple wet sour services
● Simple wet sour services contain no other crack-inducing agents or cathodic poisons
and exist when the maximum design pressure is at least 65 psia (0.45 MPa).
 CORROSION
Wet Sour Services

● This category includes wet sour processes in which the maximum design pressure is
at least 65 psia (0.45 Mpa) and specifically includes systems known to be especially
susceptible to various forms of wet H2S cracking. Examples include:
1. Wet sour light hydrocarbons such as wet sour liquid petroleum gas
or natural gas liquids
[Link]-pressure separation systems downstream of hydrotreaters and
hydro-cracking units
 CORROSION
Corrosion allowance
● Corrosion allowance is normally provided for vessels and piping. Most end users
require only an internal corrosion allowance. However, some companies also require
an external corrosion allowance for special circumstances such as external insulation
or buried piping.
● For many applications, corrosion allowance is a waste of money. Experience shows
that almost all corrosion damage is due to localized mechanisms such as pitting. In
areas subject to localized metal loss, corrosion allowance may provide a few years of
life extension.
● However, the vast majority of the corrosion allowance paid for is never used. Further,
a net present worth analysis quickly shows that such extended life, unless taken
advantage of in the first few years of equipment life, cannot pay for itself. Note that
early payoff also implies early failure.
 CORROSION

● Finally, the whole concept of corrosion allowance can be difficult to justify on

technical grounds:
• The real yield and tensile strengths of a material are usually 10-50 percent higher
than the minimum values in specifications such as those of ASTM. The section
thickness of vessel pressure plate and pipe wall thickness is determined by the
maximum code-allowable stress. The latter is determined by the specified minimum
yield or tensile strength. Accordingly, the section thickness as determined by the
engineering code often has an inherent corrosion allowance of 10-50 percent.

• The calculated section thickness is based on the maximum design pressure. The
maximum design pressure is sometimes a good deal greater than the maximum
operating pressure.
 CORROSION

• ASTM specifications allow for mill under-tolerance on section thickness. For plate and
plate products, under-tolerance is usually 0.010" (2.5 mm). For many pipe specifications,
the under-tolerance on thickness is 12.5 percent. The common piping codes require that
thickness, as determined by the maximum allowable stress and the maximum design
pressure, be adjusted upwards by the mill under tolerance.
• The wall thickness selected is usually the next standard thickness (i.e., schedule)
available above the calculated thickness. This provides even more inherent corrosion
allowance.
• In low-pressure applications, section thickness is often determined by welding
considerations. Section thicknesses less than about 0.2" (5 mm) can generate problems
with lineup, distortion or bum-throughs. Section thickness may also be dictated by
availability. The thickness used therefore has an inherent corrosion allowance. In many
such cases, virtually the entire thickness is corrosion allowance.
 CORROSION

1. Design Life
● Design Life The corrosion allowance for vessels, heat exchangers and tanks should
provide for 20 years of corrosion. For piping, 10 years of corrosion allowance should
be required, based on the easier replaceability of piping.
2. Vessels, Heat Exchangers and Tanks
● A minimum of V8" (3 mm) corrosion allowance should be provided for carbon steel
and low-alloy vessels, heat exchangers and tanks, unless the service is deemed non-
corrosive.
● For high alloys, some users require a nominal corrosion allowance of about V16" (1.5
mm). In the absence of a user requirement, zero corrosion allowance may be
specified for high alloys. These recommendations apply to alloy plate, the clad layer
of clad plate and the overlay of overlayed plate.
● In some cases, service requirements encourage different corrosion allowances for
different parts of the same vessel, heat exchanger or tank.
 CORROSION

● For example, the lower course and bottom of a crude oil storage tank may have 1/8"
(3 mm) corrosion allowance, for water corrosion. The upper courses, which are not
exposed to water corrosion, may have only 1/16" (1.5 mm) or even zero corrosion
allowance.
● The alloy layer of clad or overlayed plate will normally be specified to be a minimum
of 0.125" (3 mm) thick. For heat exchangers, greater thickness or special designs may
be required to prevent, or compensate for, damage during bundle insertion and
removal. If overlaying, consider whether a two-layer overlay should be required, to
accommodate weld dilution in the first layer.
 CORROSION
[Link]
The following corrosion allowances are usually adequate for carbon steel piping:
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