MODULE 3

Geologic
Processes
on Earth
Objectives:
1. describe how rocks undergo weathering;

2. explain how the products of weathering we carried

away by erosion and deposited elsewhere;

3. explain how rocks and soil move down slope due to

the direct action of gravity;

4. explain why Earth’s interior is hot;

Objectives:
5. describe how magma is formed (magmatism);

6. describe what happens after magma is formed

(plutonism and volcanism);

7. describe the changes in mineral components and

texture of rocks due to changes in pressure and
temperature (metamorphism); and

8. describe how rocks behave under different types of

stress such as compression, pulling apart, and shearing.
 Geologic
Processes
on Earth
• The term "geological processes"
describes the natural forces that shape
the physical makeup of a planet.

• Plate tectonics, erosion, chemical

weathering and sedimentation are all
examples of forces that significantly
affect the Earth’s surface and account
for its major features.
• These processes are closely studied
by geologists and earth scientists to
improve their understanding of the
planet’s history; to help locate useful
resources, and to aid the prediction of
potentially disastrous events, such as
earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic
eruptions.
* Geologic processes are broken
down into two categories:

1. Exogenous (external)

2. Endogenous (internal)
EXOGENOUS PROCESSES
- This process occur on or near the surface of the
Earth.
- They are usually influenced or driven by gravity,
water, wind, and organisms.
- These could be destructive occurrences that leave
significant changes on the landscape and even in
the ecosystem of an area. In extreme cases, these
process can wipe out majority of the organisms
inhabiting that area.
 Different
types of
Exogenous
Processes
1. Weathering
* Physical Weathering
* Chemical Weathering
2. Erosion
3. Mass Wasting
4. Sedimentation
1. Weathering
• It is the disintegration of rocks, soil, and
minerals together with other materials
through contact with Earth’s subsystems.
• It happens even without movement or
transportation (as opposed to erosion that
involves movement)
• The breaking down of soil and rocks
happen on the spot.
a. Physical Weathering
• It is the breakdown of rocks by mechanical forces
concentrated along rock fractures.
• This can occur due to changes, whether sudden or
not, in temperature, pressure, etc.

Example:
* Rocks crack because of extreme heat and
drought. In some cases, water, wind, or ice may
abrade or scrape rocks or soil.
b. Chemical Weathering
• The process by which rocks breakdown by
chemical reaction.
• In this process, new or secondary minerals develop
and sometime replace the original properties of the
minerals in the original rocks or soil.
• Oxidation – the reaction of a substance with
oxygen.
• Hydrolysis – the chemical breakdown of a
substance when combined with water.
• Another contributor of chemical weathering is Acid
Rain which may cause metal or stone to corrode or
deteriorate and change their properties because of
the reaction to acids by some of the minerals in the
soil and rocks that make them up.
2. Erosion
• It is the process by which Earth’s surface is worn
away by wind, water, or ice.
• The process of erosion moves rock debris or soil
from one place to another.
• Erosion takes place when there is rainfall, surface
runoff, flowing rivers, sea water intrusion,
flooding, freezing and thawing, hurricanes, winds,
etc.
• These are forces of nature, whether violent or
passive, capable of exfoliating and scraping Earth’s
surface and exposing the layers underneath it.
• Movement of land animals during migration or
stampede can also cause erosion.
• Human activities such as deforestation ,
overgrazing, and mining also cause erosion.
• These massive activities can cause deterioration
and destruction of infrastructure.
3. Mass Wasting
• This refers to movement of large masses of
materials down a slope or steep-sided hill or
mountain due to the pull of gravity.
• It is very destructive in areas with increased water
flow, steep slopes, scarce or no vegetation, or
vibrating or moving grounds.
a. Debris flow happens when a large amount of
sediments , usually rocks of various sizes, falls
down the slope. Unlike a landslide, debris flow
does not need water to flow down.

DEBRIS FLOW IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA

b. Mudflow happens when combined soil and
water flow down a slope. This usually happens near
rivers or streams where soil or sand is always moist
or has been soaked in water for a long time. The
weight of the mudflow indicates the severity of risk
when it follows down the community

Mudflow in Los Angeles

c. Slump is a slow movement of the soil along a
curve surface. In time, the area would look curved
because of the depression formed by the sinking land.

Slump in north bismarck

4. Sedimentation
• It is the accumulation of materials such as soil, rock
fragments, and soil particles settling on the ground.
• This usually occurs in streams and sea erosion. Over time,
the sediment load becomes thick and forms a new layer of
ground.
• In some small island waters, this sediment layer will
eventually dry up the water and become the part of the soil.
• In oceans, the sediment layer can form the ocean basin.
Because geologic process is constant, ocean basins change
in size and depth. The change depends on the rate of
erosion in their surrounding continental masses or by
ocean ridges.
Cayuga lake sediment
Endogenous Processes
• The endogenous processes on Earth take place
within or in the interior of the Earth.
• The driving force is the thermal energy of the
mantle and the crust.
• Most of the thermal energy originates from the
decay and disintegration of radioactive elements in
the Earth’s core.
• The endogenous processes on Earth are responsible
for the earthquakes, development of continents,
mountain building, volcanic activities and other
movements related to Earth’s crust.
1. Magmatism
• Magma is the original material that make up
igneous rocks.
• Originally found beneath the surface of Earth,
magma is very hot and is constantly moved by the
internal heat that reaches the mantle of Earth
through convective flow.
• Magmatism happens when magma is generated and
develops into igneous (magmatic) rocks.
• The process can take place either under the surface
or on the surface of Earth to become part of crust.
2. Volcanism (or Plutonism)
• It is the process that usually happens after magma
is formed.
• Magma tries to escape from the source through
openings such as volcanoes or existing cracks on
the ground.
• Magma comes out with extreme heat and pressure
and may cause destructive explosions.
• As soon as the magma reaches the surface of Earth,
it is now called lava.
3. Metamorphism
• It is the process of changing the materials that
make up a rock.
• The chemical components and geologic
characteristics of the rock change due to heat and
pressure that are increasing or decreasing.
• The mineral in the rock may change even if the
rock does not melt.
• It should be noted that rocks changing due to
weathering and sedimentation are not considered to
have undergone metamorphism.
3. Metamorphism
• Two types of metamorphism:
1. Contact metamorphism – If rock
minerals and texture change because of
heat.
2. Regional metamorphism – Where
change in the rock happens in a more
extensive area, like a mountain range,
resulting from a larger-scale action of heat
and pressure.
 Types of
Stress
Influencing
Rock Behavior
Types of Stress That Influence Rock Behavior
• The geologic processes that occur on
Earth make land masses, called plates,
push or pull each other.
• Geological stress is the force (from the
pushing and pulling of plates) that acts
on the rocks, thereby creating different
behavior or characteristics.
1. Compression
• In compressional stress, rocks push or squeeze
against one another.
• The stress produced is directed toward the center.
• Hence, when these rocks meet, the orientation
could either be horizontal or vertical.
• Horizontally, the crust may thicken or shorten.
• Vertically, the crust can thin out or break off.
• Compressional stress is usually what takes place in
folding, which results in mountain building.
2. Tension
• In tensional stress, rocks and pulled apart.
• Rocks may separate in in opposite
directions or move farther away from one
another.
• It is speculated that this type of stress is
what separated all the continents in the
world during the breaking away of the
supergiant continent known as Pangaea.
3. Shear
• Some of the portions of a plate at the edges
may break away in different directions,
eventually making the plate smaller in size.
• Depending on the conditions of the
environment, shear stress usually happens
at different rates at the boundaries of the
plate.
• The friction caused by this stress can cause
earthquake.
4. Confining
• In confining stress, the crust becomes compact, making it
look smaller.
• This is different from shearing as none of the crust’s edges
break away.
• However, if breaking away happens, it would come from the
inside. This may retain the shape of the crust but not its
weight.
• In short, nothing may seem to has changed in the appearance
of the crust because changes have occurred inside.
• Confining stress can cause sinkholes where the inside portion
of the ground has already disintegrated without being
apparent on the surface.
On your Notebook:

1. What are you going to do to avoid

the occurrence of the geologic
events?
2. Give an example where geologic
events occur and what are the
effects of this in your community.
 The
Continental
Drift Theory
Objectives:
1. describe the continental drift theory;

2. discuss the pieces of evidence that support

continental drift;

3. explain how seafloor spreads; and

4. explain how the movement of plates leads to

the formation of folds, faults, trenches,
volcanoes, rift valleys, and mountain ranges.
The Continental Drift Theory
• Geologic processes continue to change the appearance
of the Earth.
• In the absence of maps, only archaeological finds may
solve this puzzle.
• In 1596, Abraham Ortelius observed and proposed that
the shapes of the continents on both sides of the
Atlantic Ocean seemed to be connected to each other.
• It was as if Africa was torn away from Asia and
Europe.
• With the absence of valid measurements and proof, the
only speculation he could provide was that earthquakes
and flooding may have made the separation possible.
The Continental Drift Theory
• In 1912, geophysicist Alfred Wegener, 1880–
1930, developed the concept of and hypothesized
the continental drift theory (PANGAEA).
• Wegener supported this theory with references
from past authors with similar ideas, such as
Eduard Seuss, who also recognized the existence
of Gondwanaland.
• Seuss is better known to have proposed the
existence of Tethys Sea, the only recognized body
of water during that time.
 Evidences
Supporting
Continental
Drift Theory
1. Similarity of fossils in different
continents
• Many similar plant and animal
fossils were found in continents that
are presently far from each other
such that it is unimaginable for an
animal to have flown or swum to get
to the other continent.
1. Similarity of fossils in different
continents
2. Presence of tillites in areas
whose present climates suggest
glacial formation
• Tillites are glacial deposits from
rock strata in areas that were
once covered with snow.
3. Presence of coal seams in polar
regions
• Coal is a fossil fuel that
originated from the chemically
altered remains of prehistoric
vegetation.
4. Continuity of rock layers in
different continents.
• Rock layers maybe profiles to
determine the history, age, and
composition of materials in the
environment.
5. Similarity of rock types in
different continents
• The rock type of Brazil, India,
South Africa, and Antarctica
seem to have similar layers and
sequence.
 Plate
Tectonics
Theory
1. Wegener's Theory (1912):
Said continents moved (Continental
Drift).
Rejected because he couldn't
explain how they moved.
2. Holmes’ Idea (1929):
Suggested heat from Earth creates
convection currents.
These currents move continents like
a conveyor belt.
3. Mantle Convection:
Later improved as mantle
convection, showing heat from
Earth’s mantle causes
movement.
4. Stronger Evidence (1940s):
Ocean mapping and seismic
studies showed continents sit on
moving plates.
5. Tectonic Plates
Earth's crust is broken into plates that
float on the mantle.
Plates can be oceanic (thin and heavy)
or continental (thick and light).
6. Major Plates
Pacific, Eurasian, North American,
South American, Indo-Australian,
Antarctic, African.
Minor plate: Philippine Plate.