• millions of natural and man-made chemicals

exist in world today - depending on exposure

or dose consumed, thousands of these
chemicals can be toxic to human body
• science which deals with toxicity of substances
• branch of science concerned with nature,
effects, and detection of adverse effects that
occur in living organisms due to toxic
substances
• substances inflicting toxic effect may be

• study of adverse effects of chemicals and

drugs on humans and animals
• is use of toxicology for analysis of biological
samples for presence of toxins, including
drugs
• branch of science that applies principles and
knowledge of toxicology to issues and
problems in field of law
• is associated with medico-legal aspects of
toxicology
• plays an essential role in criminal and medical
investigations of poisoning, drug use and
death including suspected cases of doping,
inhalant or drug abuse, and driving under
influence of alcohol or drugs or environmental
chemicals that adversely affect human body
and where results are likely to be used in a
legal setting
 DISCIPLINES OF FORENSIC
TOXICOLOGY
• field of forensic toxicology comprises of three
sub-disciplines: postmortem forensic
toxicology, human performance toxicology,
and forensic drug testing
 POSTMORTEM FORENSIC
TOXICOLOGY
• referred to as death investigation toxicology
• enables to establish role of alcohol, drugs, and
poisons in causation of a death
• field investigates suspected drug overdoses,
homicide, suicide, natural deaths and general
unknown deaths due to toxins through testing
and interpretation
 HUMAN PERFORMANCE
TOXICOLOGY
• deals with effects of alcohol and drugs on
human performance and behaviour
• Forensic toxicologists are asked to determine
timing and extent of impairment resulting
from different patterns of drug and alcohol
use and to state an opinion about effects on
an individual at time of a crime or accident
including drug facilitated sexual assault cases
 FORENSIC DRUG TESTING
• is performed in a wide range of setting
including workplace, doping control in sports,
probation and parole as well as compliance
monitoring and testing
• substance which produces toxicity
• connotes a high probability of the toxic effect
produced by substance and capable of
producing adverse effects on an individual
under appropriate conditions
• whether natural or synthetic causes damage
to living tissues and has an injurious or fatal
effect on body, which when swallowed,
inhaled, or absorbed or injected through skin
 p
• are classified by origin, physical form, chemical
nature, chemical activity, target site, or use
• exists in the form of gases, liquids, solids,
sprays
• toxicity of a poison depends upon its inherent
properties such as physiochemical as well as
pharmacological properties
• factors affecting action of poisons depend
upon forms of poison – physical, chemical and
mechanical combination, quantity, method of
administration, condition of body – age,
health, dosage – effective dose, lethal dose,
hypersensitivity, tolerance and individual
susceptibility
• poisons can be classified in various categories
depending upon their mode of action, physical
state, medicolegal classification and toxico-
analytical
[Link] of Action: Based on mode of action
poison can be categorized as Corrosive
poisons, Irritant poisons, Neurotic Poisons,
Cardiac Poisons and Asphyxiants
a. Corrosive poisons: are considered highly
reactive and cause inflammation at site of
contact - Strong acids and alkalis come under
this category
b. Irritant poisons: those substances which
cause irritation, pain, excessive vomiting These
are further categorized into inorganic poisons,
organic poisons and mechanical poisons
i. Inorganic poisons: which is divided into:
Metallic – Lead, arsenic, mercury, antimony,
copper and zinc
Non-Metallic - Chlorine, bromine and iodine
ii. Organic Poisons: comprises of vegetable
origin and animal origin
Vegetable poisons – croton oil, castor oil etc
Animal poisons – snakes’ venom, scorpion
venom, spiders etc
iii. Mechanical Poisons: which cause irritation,
perforation obstruction in gastrointestinal tract
- example, powder glass, diamond dust etc
c. Neurotic Poisons: which effect different parts
of nervous system, such as cerebral, spinal and
peripheral
Alcohol, opium, barbiturates, benzodiazepines
affect cerebral, Strychnine affect spinal while
curare affect peripheral
• d. Cardiac Poisons: are those which effect
heart either directly on cardiac muscle or
through its nerve supply - Oleanders (Nerium
and cerebra), Digitalis, Aconite, Nicotine have
main toxic effect on heart
• e. Asphyxiants: are those substance that can
asphyxia thereby depriving oxygen to body
that can cause unconsciousness or death
• Asphyxiants may be gases, liquids, or solids, or
their metabolites include nitrogen, argon,
helium, methane, propane, carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide
• 2. Physical State: Based on physical state,
poisons can be categorized as solid poisons,
liquid poisons and gaseous poisons.
• a. Solid poisons: are one which do not get
absorbed easily into blood - Lead, arsenic,
mercury
• b. Liquid poisons: are those which can be
absorbed when administered orally or by
inhalation or through skin - comprises organic
and inorganic liquid
• c. Gaseous poisons: are those which are
absorbed by inhalation - Carbon dioxide,
Carbon monoxide, Aerosols
• 3. Medicolegal classification: Based on
medicolegal cataloguing poison is categorized
as accidental poisons, homicidal poisons,
suicidal poisons and miscellaneous poisons
Accidental, homicidal, suicidal and various
cases of poisoning are common across
world
• a. Accidental poisons: come from either
natural sources or human-made sources
• Accidental poisoning may occur when humans
swallow poison accidentally resulting in acute
toxicity
• Accidental poisoning is a global health issue
among children - occur most frequently
among young children on account of
household items and medicines
• b. Homicidal poisons: means killing human
being by poison
• poisons used in homicide by perpetrator are
mainly organophosphates, aluminium
phosphide, paraquat, and arsenic
• c. Suicidal poisons: those poisons which
are used by individual for self-killing -
prominent suicidal poisons include Opium,
Barbiturate, Organophosphorus, Carbolic acid,
Copper sulphate
• d. Miscellaneous poisons: includes poisons
used for various categories such as:
• i. Judicial poisoning: denotes judicial
execution by administration of lethal injection
to condemned offender with a fatal dose of
drugs such as Sodium pentothal, Pancuronium
bromide, Potassium chloride, Barbiturates and
Cyanide
• ii. Abortifacient poisoning: is used to
procure abortion by using Ergot,
Quinine, Calotropis, and Plumbago.
• iii. Stupefacient poisoning: is used to
stupefy person by using dhatura, cannabis and
chloral hydrate for commitment of theft, rape
or other crimes
• 4. Toxico-analytical: Based on method used
for extraction or analysis of poison and
classified as Gaseous and volatile substances,
Organic non-volatile substances, Metallic
poisons and Anion.
• a. Gaseous and volatile substances: are
isolated by distillation or by headspace
• b. Organic non-volatile substances: are
isolated by solvent extraction methods which
basically includes opiates and synthetic
narcotics, sedatives and hypnotics, stimulants,
antidepressants and pesticides.
• c. Metallic poisons: are isolated by dry ash
method or by wet digestion method
comprises of arsenic, lead, mercury
• d. Anions poisons: isolated by dialysis which
comprises of bromide, cyanide, fluoride,
hypochlorite, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate,
sulfide, sulfate
 METHODS OF POISON
ADMINISTRATION
• poison or drugs can be administered into body
of a person through various methods
• selection of method of administration is
dependent upon type of action required and
target
• target basically are tropical which has local
effect, enteral which affect whole system and
parenteral which follow a systematic action
 METHODS OF POISON
ADMINISTRATION
• method of administration plays a very
important role in determination of death by
poison.
• A few of methods of administration of poison
or drug are:
• 1. Inhalation: fastest means is through
inhalation - primarily through nose
• mucous membrane of nasal aperture is an
absorptive surface
 METHODS OF POISON
ADMINISTRATION
• due to which microparticles of poisons are
easily absorbed and transported quickly to
lungs From lungs, they are circulated into
blood and affects entire body system almost
immediately
• 2. Oral: is most used method in which
poison is taken from mouth
• tongue and gums are most absorptive area in
mouth
 METHODS OF POISON
ADMINISTRATION
• poison taken through oral method directly
affects gastro intestinal tract, upper
respiratory tract, stomach, and other organs
• 3. Intravenous: is one of fastest methods of
poison or drug administration as injection is
directly given into veins whereby poison is
directly circulated into blood throughout body
very quickly leading to immediate death
 METHODS OF POISON
ADMINISTRATION
• 4. Intramuscular: in this method poison or
drug is injected into muscle of upper arm,
thigh, or buttock
• volume of time taken by poison or drug for
getting absorbed into bloodstream depends
upon blood supply to muscle
 MEDICAL LEGAL ASPECTS
OF POISONS
• poisoning is an important cause of death
• poisoning cases are treated as grounds for suspicious
death and a detailed post-mortem report is made, to
certify cause as to suicide or homicide
• aspects of poisoning is dealt with law to ensure there
is a remedy and protective measure that is establish
to prevent and deter such crime.
• Section 284, 299, 300, 304A, 324, 326 and 328 of IPC
deal with offences relating to handling and
administration of poisonous substances
PRESERVATION AND DISPATCH OF
VISCERA FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
• visceras are to be preserved in rectified spirit
except in cases where poisoning is due to
alcohol, acetic acid, phenol, phosphorous,
paraldehyde, in such cases organs are
preserved in saturated sodium chloride
solution
PRESERVATION AND DISPATCH OF
VISCERA FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
• viscera required to be preserved in cases of
⮚ homicide
⮚ suspected poisoning
⮚ obscured autopsy
⮚ death due to hanging or drowning
⮚ death due to burn, if the patient died within
48 hours after receipt of the injury
⮚ death which are sudden and suspicious
PRESERVATION AND DISPATCH OF
VISCERA FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
• visceras to be preserved are:
• stomach and its contents, upper part of small
intestines and its contents, liver, kidney half of
each side, uterus with appendages and upper
part of vagina is preserved in case of criminal
abortion, brain and spinal cord are preserved
in cases suspected of strychnine poisoning,
bones and nails are sent in cases of arsenic
poisoning, urine & blood from peripheral sites
PRESERVATION AND DISPATCH OF
VISCERA FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
• each viscera specimen is to be packed
separately in proper bottles, properly sealed,
and labelled and dispatch them to forensic
laboratory for chemical analysis
• blood and urine must be packed in separate
bottles preferably screw capped
• all forms should be completely and legibly
filled and detailed history must be furnished
PRESERVATION AND DISPATCH OF
VISCERA FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
• along with it a copy of Panchnama; brief facts
of case, and case sheet, a copy of autopsy
report and a letter requesting to examine
viscera and inform medical officer of finding to
be sent
• derived Greek word ‘Narkotikos’ meaning a
state of lethargy, sluggishness or sleep
• substance which has a deteriorative effect on
human mind and body is called narcotic or
narcotic drug
• are simply those drugs whose production, sale
and purchase are prohibited, controlled and
regulated by Government through the NDPS
Act 1985, and its amendments time to time
• drugs mean Coco leaf, Cannabis (hemp),
Opium, Poppy seeds and include all
manufactured drugs
• do inhibit power of discrimination and
judgement
• influence to commit crime
• have acquired tremendous notoriety in recent
years
• greatest menace of invasion is among youth
• each nation, views the abuse of drugs with
concern and provides stringent measures to
combat
• legal as well as illegal drugs possess chemical
which influence body and mind
• substances used for treatment of diseases
which causes physiological change in body and
produces beneficial effect in a particular dose
is known as pharmaceutical drug or medicine
• medicine is used to treat, cure, prevent, or
diagnose a disease or to promote well-being
• medicines vary in their chemical structure and
their pharmacological action
• medicines are potentially addictive, cause
severe negative health effects
• Drug are classified as legal and illegal
• both legal and illegal drugs can be drugs of
abuse
• substance abuse relates to taking of drugs that
are not legal
• substance abuse refers to use of illegal drugs
which involves using of a drug without
medical justification
• substance abuse differ from drug addiction
• is a state of mind and body in which a person
has lost self-control in respect of drug to
which person is addicted
• is characterized by compulsive drug seeking
and use despite adverse consequences
• drug addict will resort to crime even to satisfy
his repetitive craving for drugs
 PSYCHOTROPIC
SUBSTANCE
• is one which can affect mind, emotions and
behaviour - affects brain activities associated
mental processes and behaviour
• have effect on psychological functions and
include antidepressants, hallucinogens and
tranquilizers
• examples of psychotropic substances include
alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, marijuana, and
certain pain medicines
• are a class of drugs that enhance brain activity
which speed up messages travelling between
the brain and body
• they can make a person feel more awake,
alert, confident or energetic
• include caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines and
cocaine
• substances reduce arousal and stimulation
which slow down messages between brain
and body
• affect concentration and coordination and
hinder a person’s ability to respond to
unexpected situations
• examples central nervous system depressants
are benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and certain
sleep medicines
• are medicines that include sedatives,
tranquilizers, and hypnotics
• are a diverse class of psychoactive drugs that
alter perception of reality, thoughts, and
moods
• categorized as classic hallucinogens and
dissociative drugs
• classic hallucinogens can cause users to see
images, hear sounds, and feel sensations that
seem real but do not exist
• dissociative drugs can cause users to feel out
of control or disconnected from their body
and environment
• Classic hallucinogens include LSD (D-lysergic
acid diethylamide), Psilocybin (4-
phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine),
Peyote (mescaline), DMT (N,N-
dimethyltryptamine), 251-NBOMe
• Dissociative drugs include PCP (Phencyclidine),
Ketamine (date rape drug) Dextromethorphan
(DXM), Salvia (Salvia divinorum)
• are also referred as anti-anxiety medication
• drugs are used to reduce anxiety, fear, tension,
agitation, and related states of mental
disturbance
• are categorized as minor and major
• Minor Tranquilizers: are also known as
antianxiety agents, or anxiolytics which are
used to treat milder states of anxiety and
tension. The major minor tranquilizers are the
benzodiazepines, among which are diazepam
(Valium), chlordiazepoxide (Librium), and
alprazolam (Xanax)
• Major tranquilizers: are also known as
antipsychotic agents, or neuroleptics which
are used to treat psychiatric disorders,
including schizophrenia and other psychotic
patients.
• Major Tranquilizers include phenothiazines,
thioxanthenes, butyrophenones, clozapine
and rauwolfia alkaloids
• is said to be responsible for more deaths than
any direct toxic action or other poison or all
other poisons together
• incidence of mass death to consumption of
illicit liquors are very common in India
• growing incidence of traffic accidents and
other mishaps due to consumption of alcohol
have focused attention of law enforcement
agency
• means “Ethyl alcohol” which is an active
ingredient of various drinks, liquors and spirits
• Methyl alcohol which is not meant for human
consumption is frequently used to denature
Ethyl alcohol
• drunkards on account of its cheapness and
readily available often clandestinely consume
this denature spirt
• may be obtained:
1. By fermentation – beers and wines
2. By distillation – spirts and liquors
3. By fortifying – wines
• Country made liquor – Arrack, Gudamba,
Khopdi, Lattha
 INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL
• when alcohol is consumed the gastro-
intestinal rapidly absorbs alcohol
• rate of absorption depends upon factors such
as concentration, dilution, consumption rate,
quantity, quality, body weight, tolerance level.
• alcohol on absorption gets distributed
uniformly throughout all tissue and fluids and
concentration of alcohol in blood reaches
maximum level
 INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL
• effect of alcohol can be perceived in actions,
speech and emotions
• effect varies with age, state of health and
drinking habit.
• absorbed alcohol from blood and tissue gets
metabolized in body by process of oxidation at
rate of 10gms per hour
 INFLUENCE OF ALCOHOL
• if intake is more than this measure, the blood
alcohol level rises and the person develop
symptoms of drunkenness unless his tolerance
is high
• approximately 90% of alcohol gets eliminated
by oxidation which converts alcohol in
acetaldehyde, acetic acid, carbon dioxide and
water
 SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF
ALCOHOL INTOXICATION
• symptoms of alcohol intoxication are entirely
due to depressant action on central nervous
system - stages are – excitement,
incoordination and narcosis.
• in excitement stage concentration of blood
alcohol is between 0.05 to 0.1% (50-100 mg
percent) - with level of alcohol between 0.1%
and above, a person is not considered fit to
drive a motor vehicle
 SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF
ALCOHOL INTOXICATION
• in incoordination stage person is in a state of
confusion
• speech becomes slurred and incoherent and
his gait gets staggered
• concertation of alcohol in this stage varies
from 0.1 to 0.3% (100-300 mg percent)
• if the person drives vehicle person is likely to
commit accident
 SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF
ALCOHOL INTOXICATION
• narcosis is a stage of coma
• person passes to deep sleep
• concentration of alcohol in blood is 0.3% (300
mg percent and above
• if concentration of alcohol in blood is between
0.4 to 0.5% (400-500 mg percent) and above
then it may lead to death
 DETECTION OF ALCOHOL
• in offences related to drunkenness becomes
important
• in suspected drunkenness cases especially
related to traffic accidents and other criminal
offences, the forensic examination is done for
detection and to determine alcohol content in
blood and urine
 DETECTION OF ALCOHOL
• in cases of death due to consumption of heavy
amount of alcohol or due to consumption of
illicit liquor or due to alcohol poisoning viscera
is examined to determine nature of alcohol
and alcoholic contents
 COLLECTION OF SAMPLES
• samples of blood, urine and breath in case of
drunkenness are collected by authorized
officials at the request of investigating
personnel and sent to laboratory to determine
its alcoholic contents
 COLLECTION OF SAMPLES
• alcohol intoxication cause malfunctioning of
body to an extent of impairment of central
nervous system and motor coordination as a
result which driving of vehicles are
incompatible leading to road accidents - this
has prompted several States to enact laws
making driving under the influence of alcohol
a criminal offence
 COLLECTION OF SAMPLES
• since driving while under influence of alcohol
is an offence in many countries detection of
degree of intoxication becomes an important
task
 COLLECTION OF SAMPLES
• analysis of breath can be performed on the
spot by the police by breath-analyzer
instrument like Alcometer, Intoxilyer and G.C
intoximeter, wherein breath is blown in a
balloon which passes into the instrument
which indicate the approximate percentage of
alcohol - most of these instrument work on
principle of decolorization of an oxidizing
agent by alcohol from breath, captured in
balloon
 COLLECTION OF SAMPLES
• change in colour is proportionate to amount
of alcohol
• test only enable investigator to confirm
intoxication
• but for more reliable and accepted test, one
has to rely on blood alcohol level
 COLLECTION OF SAMPLES
• if spot test indicates of alcohol contents higher
than permissible limit then blood and urine is
collected for more accurate analysis in
laboratory
• if blood concentration is over 0.04% (40 mg
percent) is prone to accidents
• or medical jurisprudence is a branch of
medicine dealing with application of medical
knowledge to establish facts in civil or criminal
legal cases and medico-legal management
• application of medical knowledge enables a
court of law to arrive at a proper conclusion
on a contested question/s in proceedings
• Medical jurisprudence is concerned with a
broad range of medical, legal and ethical
issues as well as human rights and rights of
individuals
• medico-legal cases concerning death, sexual
assault, paternity, wounds, poisoning, suicide,
and other aspects are assessed by medical
doctors with application of medical
knowledge, expertise, and by use of various
techniques
• doctors also appear as an expert witness who
support their finding with evidence
• doctors also aid court in proper administration
of justice
• medico-legal case refers to investigation of a
case by law enforcement authority wherein
referred to medical professional for medical
evaluation
• Skin is a barrier to outside world protecting
body
• wound or injury is the loss of natural
continuity of the skin of the living body
• wounds occur when skin is broken or
damaged which may due to mechanical,
chemical, electrical, thermal or nuclear
reactions
• proper care of wound is necessary to prevent
infection and to promote healing of skin
• prognosis of wound healing is individualized
and depends upon type of wound, underlying
injury and baseline health of person
• most common symptom of wound is pain,
swelling and bleeding
 ABRASIONS
• is destruction of skin produced due to friction
or scraping which involves superficial layers of
epidermis only
• size of wound varies depending on extend of
body surface exposed to abrading force
• it is a very common injury which may range
from mild to severe
• some of them may require medical treatment
 CONTUSIONS
• is also known as bruise - contusion or bruise is
an effusion of blood into tissue and rupture of
subcutaneous vessels usually capillaries
• torn blood vessel may cause bluish
discoloration due to pool of blood at site of
damage tissue forcing a lump or injury
• results from falling or jamming body against a
hard surface - causes swelling and pain
• may be associated with abrasions and
lacerations
 LACERATIONS
• is a wound in which tissue is torn due to blunt
force to the body
• there is a deep cut or tearing of skin
 INCISED WOUNDS
• is a clean cut through tissue which is longer
than it is deep
 CHOP WOUNDS
• are deep gasping wound caused by a blow
with sharp cutting edge of a heavy instrument
like an axe, butcher’s knife, sword etc
• chop wound margins are sharp and may show
slight abrasions and bruising with marked
destructions of underlying organs
• depending upon attack and force there may
be complete or incomplete amputation of
body parts - most these injuries are homicidal
 STAB WOUNDS
• penetration of body by sharp and/or pointed
object which is deeper than its length on the
skin
• it usually causes a small opening at skin but
may go very deep affecting blood vessel,
tendons, nerves and organs
 ASSESSING STAB WOUNDS
• nature of weapon used;
• movement of weapon;
• depth of the thrust;
• direction of the thrust;
• degree of force
 DEFENCE WOUNDS
• result due to immediate and instructive
reaction of victim to save himself, either by
raising arm to prevent attack or by grasping
weapon
• an injury received by victim of an attack while
trying to defend against assailant
• appearance and nature of defence wounds
varies according types of weapons used
 DEFENCE WOUNDS
• if weapon is blunt, bruises and abrasions are
produced on exterior or ulnar surfaces of fore
arms, wrists, back of hands and knuckles
• if weapon is sharp injuries depend types of
attack, whether stabling or cutting
• rarely defence wounds are found on feet or
legs
 DEFENCE WOUNDS
• are absent if victim is unconscious, or is taken
by surprise or attacked from back or under
influence of alcohol or drugs
• highly indicate homicide
• classified as active and passive
• active are found while grasping knife
• passive on back side of hand if it was raised to
protect face
 SELF-INFLICTED AND
FABRICATED WOUNDS
• are those inflicted by a person on his own
body
• fabricated wounds termed fictious/forged/or
invented wounds are those which may be
produced by a person on his own body by
another with his consent
• Fabricated wounds are mostly incised wounds
and sometimes contusions, stab wounds and
burns-incised wounds are usually superficial,
multiple and parallel
 EXAMINATION OF WOUNDS
• each wound is examined and based upon its
characteristics they are assessed and reported
by the examining medical officer
• wounds indicate site of impact, cause of
injury, direction of the force, the nature of
injury, weapon used, age of the injury,
dimension of wounds
• refers to death due to asphyxiation
• occurs when body is deprived of oxygen
• in asphyxial deaths, exchange of air between
atmosphere and lung is prevented by some
mechanical means
• some of the forms of asphyxial deaths are
hanging, strangulation, suffocation and
drowning
 HANGING
• is a form of ligature strangulation in which
force applied to neck is derived from a
gravitational drag of weight of body or part of
body
 HANGING
• disrupts the connection between the neck and
spine. On account of it, the carotid arteries are
compressed and oxygen and blood supply to
brain is cut off
• in most cases of hanging, death occurs
immediately, usually within 3 to 5 minutes and
it is due to asphyxia, cerebral anoxia, vagal
inhibition, venous congestion, or injury to
spinal cord
 HANGING
• common methods of committing suicide
• instances of incidences where people are
killed in some other way and later suspended
to simulate hanging (homicidal hanging)
• hence death due to hanging is one of most
complex and controversial areas of asphyxial
death
 HANGING
• to ascertain cause and manner of death in
cases of hanging, thorough examination of
ligature mark, neck structure findings and
other autopsy findings are much relevant
include ligature markings around the neck
 HANGING
• include ligature markings around the neck
• inverted ‘V’ configuration, with apex at point
of suspension is visible
 HANGING
• fractures of hyoid or thyroid cartilage are
uncommon
• visit to scene of crime is very much helpful to
ascertain circumstances and manner of
hanging
• occurs when external pressure on neck
obstructs blood vessels and air passages
• process is either by Manual (hands) or by
ligature, resulting in blunt force injury of
tissues of neck
• manual strangulation is also known as
throttling
• manual strangulation involves compression of
neck externally either by one or both hands or
forearm resulting in blocking of blood vessels
and air passages of neck
• ligature strangulation occurs when an external
object is placed around the neck and
compressed by using some form of cord (rope,
wire, chain, or shoelaces
• examination includes external as well as
autopsy
• in case of manual strangulation fingermarks
and injuries of patterned abrasions and
contusions caused by fingernails are found on
surface of neck
• in manual strangulation thumb generates
more pressure than other fingers therefore
thumb impression are found more often than
complete hand grasp
• wounds of fingernail mark are often
associated with cases of sexual abuse and/or
domestic violence
• best medical evidence of strangulation is
derived from autopsy
• autopsy examination of neck includes
complete dissection with removal of larynx
including hyoid bone, and preferably with
tongue attached
• cervical spine is opened and examined for
injury
• strangulation by ligature the ligature mark is a
pressure mark on neck underneath ligature

• nature of ligature mark depends upon

material and position of ligature used and
time of suspension of body after death
• Ligature mark becomes a crucial aid in
diagnosis and evaluation of corpse
• examination of ligature material and mark
becomes an indispensable part of autopsy
• ligature produces a mark as a furrow or
groove in tissue
• typical findings are congestion of head with
cyanosis, petechial hemorrhages, and
sometimes bleeding from mouth, nose, or
ears
• is associated with deprivation of oxygen,
either partial or complete interfering with
respiration which affects primarily tissues and
organs causing unconsciousness or death
• illustration of suffocation is choking
• death due to suffocation can be caused due to
entrapment or environmental suffocation,
smothering, choking, mechanical asphyxia,
mechanical asphyxia combined with
smothering, and suffocating gases
• non-specific physical signs which attribute
death due suffocation include visceral
congestion, petechiae, cyanosis and fluidity of
the blood
• congestion occurs due to obstructed venous
return and capillo-venous congestion
• face, lips, tongue become swollen and
reddened due to congestion over neck
• petechiae are pinpoint, round spots that
appear on skin as a result of bleeding
• bleeding causes petechiae to appear red,
brown or purple

• cyanosis is a pathologic condition that is

characterized by a bluish discoloration of skin,
mucous membrane, or internal organs
• is a type of asphyxia in which respiratory
impairment is experienced due to submersion
of body in water or fluid medium resulting in
death
• is a leading cause of accidental death
• mechanism in drowning is hypoxemia (oxygen
levels in blood are lower than normal) and
irreversible cerebral anoxia (complete
interruption of supply of oxygen to brain)
• investigation of drowning includes external
examination and complete autopsy
• skin of body is pale, cold, and sticky due to
contraction of superficial blood vessels
• postmortem lividity is seen over face, head
and neck and front of chest as body
• large amount of froth is present around
nostrils and mouth
• injuries such as abrasion over forehead,
prominent points of face, the anterior trunk,
backs of hands and fronts of lower legs are
seen
• when autopsy is conducted it found that lungs
are over inflated, water in body cavity and
sand, silt, seashells and weeds in the airways,
lungs, stomach, and duodenum
• diatoms found inside body may serve as
corroborative evidence in the diagnosis of
cause of drowning death
 MEDICO-LEGAL AUTOPSIES
• are complete autopsies
• a thorough external and internal examination
of all organs is carried out in all cases referred
to forensic department
• medico-Legal Autopsy is a special type of
scientific examination performed on body of a
deceased person
• Autopsy means seeing of self and commonly
known as postmortem examination
 MEDICO-LEGAL AUTOPSIES
• autopsy is categorized as Medicolegal
Autopsy/Forensic Autopsy, Histopathological
Autopsy/Clinical Autopsy
• Medicolegal Autopsy/Forensic Autopsy is performed
for identification, identity, cause of death, time of
death, circumstances of death and help law enforcing
agencies in investigation of sudden, unexpected,
suspicious, mysterious, unwitnessed, obscure,
unexplained, or litigious deaths, and criminal deaths
 MEDICO-LEGAL AUTOPSIES
• Histopathological Autopsy/Clinical Autopsy is
done to diagnose the disease that has caused
death and enriching medical knowledge
• Medico-legal autopsy is performed, as part of
inquest procedure, when ordered by
investigating authority in medico-legal deaths
• U/S. 174, Cr.P.C investigating authority can
order any registered medical practitioner or
medical graduate to carry out medico-legal
autopsy
• any death in operation theatre, labour room,
during post operative period during/following
invasive procedure, are to be considered as
medico legal
• when a dead body is brought to a hospital
specifically by an Investigating Officer to
determine manner of death and
circumstances lead to cause of death
• basic purpose for conducting autopsy to
determine and state whether the death was
homicide, accidental, suicidal, natural, or
unnatural by examining a corpse
• in most of jurisdiction autopsy is carried out
by forensic medical pathologists or medical
doctors
• usually, postmortem is performed during
investigation of criminal or civil cases
• postmortem or autopsy must be conducted by
a fully qualified by a highly surgical procedure
which comprises of thorough examination by
the medical doctor and preparation of autopsy
report which contains an opinion about: the
pathologic process, mechanism of death,
cause or event of death and the manner of
death
• autopsy also provides an opportunity for
collection of trace evidences and determining
the identity of the victim
PURPOSE FOR CONDUCTING
AUTOPSY
• to establish the identity of the dead
• to determine the cause of death;
• to ascertain whether clinical diagnosis is
carried;
• for teaching and or research purpose in
academic hospitals;
• to aid in criminal investigation of unlawful
death
• before initiating autopsy a complete assessment of
all available documents pertaining to death, including
reports from police, hospital, or crime scene
investigation
• complete autopsy includes an external examination
of body (including examination of clothes and
accessories on body), internal examination, and
collection and preservation of various material for
any indicated ancillary investigations
• [Link] Examination:
• external examination of a corpse is carried out
to ensure discovery of visible signs of injury
and bruises to determine whether that might
have led to cause of death - known as
preliminary examination
• next is examination of clothes which would
reveal signs of excreted body fluids, fibers,
hair, blood etc
• Then clothing may be removed by
unbuttoning, unzipping, and unboxing
• if clothing cannot be removed intact, they
should be cut along the joins
• each item of clothing should be recorded,
labelled, and packed properly
• thereafter body examined in a systematic
manner starting from top of head and going to
tip of toes
• now body is checked for sign of rigor mortis
(stiffing of muscles) and lividity (setting of
blood) - both these conditions can be
measured and used as means for determining
time of death
• during external examination fingernails are
examined and scraped and clean to find out
any material underneath such as traces of
skin, blood, hair, or any other material
• body is also examined if any injuries such as
cuts, bruises, stab or shooting
• examination of wounds would enable to
establish kind of weapon used in attack
• each wound is measured and detailed
description is furnished in the autopsy report
• skin surface is examined for possible hidden
marks and tattoos
• thereafter head and facial structure is
examined which includes descriptions of eyes,
ears, nose, and mouth
• neck region is closely examined to note any
unusual markings and injuries that may
suggest self-harm and/or criminal actions
• examination of torso follows, with
documentation of overall size and shape and
examination of any abnormalities that may
suggest disease or injuries and anus is also
examined for any abnormalities
2. INTERNAL EXAMINATION:
• incision across head is made which allows top
of skull to be removed so that brain can be
examined
• Y-shaped incision is commonly employed to
open body which goes from tips of shoulder
on each side obliquely down, along neck and
behind ears, joining at middle of chest,
roughly between nipples, and incision is then
continued down vertically along midline of
front of body, stopping at pubis
• other methods of incision include modified Y-
shaped incision which start from behind each
ear down sides of neck toward the middle of
the chest
• I-shaped incision is a single straight vertical
incision that goes from top of neck down
midline of front of body to pubis
• thereafter skin is removed from underlying
bones, then chest plate is removed and ribs
are cut to enable internal organs to be
removed and examined organs individually
• in certain circumstances body viscera and
fluids samples are retained for autopsy
ancillary investigation for
chemical/toxicological analysis and
histopathological/microscopic
• once an internal examination is complete,
body is reconstituted by sewing it back
together
• on completion of autopsy examination, report
of autopsy is written documenting findings
and inferences concluded based on scientific
reasoning and signed by medical examiner
• refers to force or coercive sexual contact or
behaviour that occurs without the explicit
consent of the victim
• can be of different forms and one thing which
shall be remembered that it’s never victim’s
fault
• a few forms of sexual assault include
• rape
• attempted rape
• foundling or unwanted sexual touching-child
molestation
• forcing victim to perform sexual acts-oral sex
• sexual harassment or threats
• rape is a form of sexual assault, but not all
sexual assault is rape
• term specifically includes sexual penetration
without consent.
• S. 375 of IPC define rape + subsequent
amendments
• penetration constitute rape-may with or
without emission of semen
 # Age of accused:
•Under 7; Above 7 and Under 12; Above 12
•majority of perpetrator are known to victim
•seven out of ten sexual assaults are committed
by someone known to victim
•date rape-referred as acquittance rape
•rape by a stranger where victim may not know
perpetrator at all
• Potency is decisive
 # Age of victim:
•No age is safe for rape
•child less than one year to woman of eight and
above are victims of rape
• # Examination of sexual victim:
• Objective medical examination sexual victim:
• to search for physical signs for corroboration
• collection and preservation of trace elements
• treatment of victim for injuries
• prevention from transmission of vernal
diseases
• prevention or lessening of permanent
psychological damage
• Procedure:
• when a rape victim is brought for
examination by an Investigating Officer a
through and proper examination is to be
carried by medical officer and prepare a
report pertaining to sexual assault
[Link] of Clothes:
• most important aspect is to ensure about
clothes worm are same or changed and
whether she had bathed or washed any
part of body or urinated since assault
• each item of clothing shall be removed by
victim in presence of doctor
• then each clothing must be examined for
stains-blood, semen, trace elements etc
• then each clothing must be examined for
stains-blood, semen, trace elements etc
• clothes collected to be stored in a clean paper
bag and sent to laboratory
• clothes are connecting link regarding
corroborating or contradicting hearsay
2. Examination of body:
•entire body must be examined for injuries and
marks of violence
•injuries and marks are mainly due to struggle
by victim
•marks of violence especially bruises and
scratches many be found on mouth, wrists,
arms, thighs, knees, while bite marks are found
on breast, neck shoulder, chest nipples
• extent and nature of general body injuries
should be noted to confirm whether they
correspond to victim’s description of assault
• during struggle assailant is usually scratched
by victim
• hence fingernails shall be examined
• if any skin material or debris found under nails
are to collected and sent for examination
 3. Genitals:
• through examination of genitals must be done
accordingly:
• vaginal speculum should be used if possible
• first examine lining of vagina
• note for any abrasions, bruises, erosions, or
vault tears
• Further examination may reveal:
• area of pain and tenderness in the vagina;
• some laxity of vaginal orifice (indicating
previous penetration);
• elongation of posterior fornix of vagina;
• size of vagina should be noted by one, two or
three fingers as the case may be
• Lillu vs State of Haryana, AIR 2013 SC 1784, in
2013, the Supreme Court had held that the
two-finger test and its interpretation violated
the right of rape survivors to privacy, physical
and mental integrity and dignity (right to
privacy)
• # Sexual Assault on Virgin:
• Examination of hymen:
• rupture of hymen occurs with first
intercourse which is main evidence of rape
in virgin;
• after intercourse margins of torn hymen
are sharpened red which bleeds;
• fourchette often tears during the first
intercourse
• bruising, fingernail scratches and lacerations
of external genitals may be present with
redness, swelling and inflammation
• bruising of vagina is seen as dark red areas
against overall redness of vaginal mucosa and
within twenty-four hours colour becomes
deep red or purple
• bruising of this nature is due to penetration of
penis
• in all cases where there are no fresh injuries,
vaginal examination should be carried to
assess laxity of vaginal orifice, length of vagina
into posterior fornix, number of fingers that
can be introduced through hymenal orifice
and areas, and degree of tenderness
complained by victim
• a speculum may be introduced to inspect
internal of vagina for signs of bruising,
abrasions, lacerations etc
• internal vagina examination enables doctor to
assess elasticity of hymen and to detect
degree of penetration which would be
possible without its rupture - if vaginal
opening is enough to admit two fingers easily
sexual intercourse is possible without rupture
of hymen
• # Sexual Assault on Deflorate Women
• in deflorate women hymen is completely
destroyed, vaginal orifice is dilated and
mucous membrane is wrinkled and thickened
• complete penetration can occur in such
women and leave no evidence except
presence semen
• in married woman marks of violence to gentile
are less likely to found but must be examined
because rape is usually associated with
greater violence and sexual intercourse is
without consent
• usually as women offer resistance vagina may
show deep lacerations or bruising with
effusion of blood and inflammation of vulva
• when older woman is raped senile atrophy
and friability of their genital result in extensive
laceration and perineal trauma
• presence of violence on other parts of body is
chief evidence of crime
 # Sexual Assault on Children:
•especially among young children a few or no
sign of general violence is visible as child has no
idea of what is happening and also incapable of
any resisting
•as hymen is deeply situated and as vagina is
small it is impossible for penetration of adult
penis
• full penile penetration produces bruising of
vaginal wall and tear of anterior or posterior
vaginal walls
• vaginal vault may rupture
• hymen may be entirely destroyed or may
show lacerations
• blood may ooze from injured parts or clots of
blood may be found in vagina
• CORROBORATIVE SIGNS OF RAPE-
EVIDENCE
• Presence of seminal fluids:
• Collect mucus from vagina as possible by
means of a glass rod, cotton swab or spatula
or contents are extracted from posterior fornix
by means of a blunt and pipette
• smears are prepared immediately and fixed by
passing on slide quickly several times over
flame or fixed in alcohol
• slides should be labelled or marked and
individually wrapped in clean white paper tied
with twine and sealed properly
• second swab is inserted in small amount of
normal saline, which is examined for the
presence of motility of spermatozoa
• third swab is air dried and placed in a clean
dry test tube and is used for acid phosphate
determination
• any soiled area especially on external genitals
and thighs should be swabbed with a cotton
swab moistened with saline air dried and
placed in a sterile container
• presence of spermatozoa in the vagina is proof
of sexual connection, but of rape, absence of
spermatozoa is no proof that sexual
connection has not taken place, for they may
have been removed by washing or by
discharge or there may not have been an
emission or it may have been a spermic, due
to vasectomy or naturally
• presence of fresh seminal stains on victim
woman provided strong evidence of
intercourse attempted or committed
• Evidence from vaginal discharged:
• if assailant is suffering from V.D, he may
transmit it to victim-strong corroborative
evidence of intercourse
• syphilis- indurated ulcer on external genitals
may occur
• blood sample should be taken for serological
examination for syphilis
• Evidence of Struggle:
• signs of active resistance may be present
• broken finger nails may be found due to
scratching assailant
• under nail’s debris may be present-blood,
fibers hairs, skin fragments of assailants
 # Assault Related Aspects:
•Wounds - Genitals
•Seminal Stains and blood
•Venereal Diseases - Gonorrhea, Syphilis
•Lead to Pregnancy
•evidence collected by medical examination of
the victim and accused may either confirm or
contradict the allegation made
 # Identity of the Accused:
•blood, semen, saliva, hair, and general
debris present on clothing or person of
victim may enable identity of accused by
comparing with known material of accused
• medical proof of intercourse is not legal
proof of rape
• rape can occur without causing any injury
and assault
• negative evidence doesn’t exclude rape
• report of examiner should contain negative
as well as positive findings
• doctor gives opinion that signs are of recent
vaginal penetration
• independent corroboration of victim’s story
may be obtained by an eye witness, evidence
acquired at crime scene and from body of
victim
 # Examination of Accused:
•Indian legal system makes it mandatory to
medically examine any accused or rape as well
as other sexual assault
•examination of accused will afford evidence as
to commission of rape
•S. 53 A of Cr.P.C empowers examination of
person accused of rape by medical practitioner
• To the corroborate the sexual assault the
specimens to be collected from accused are:
• coronal sulcus prepuce
• penile shaft and urethral orifice-reveals
infection or blood present - found on victim’s
swabs
• blood group
• pubic hairs
• S.377 OF IPC
• Preliminary Step:
• victim is examined in knee elbow position and
appearance is noted
• perianal and rectal swab to be collected
• on examination anus muscle is found dilated,
irritable and tender to touch.
• anus region show of elasticity and tone
• finger test is conducted - one finger- no
discomfort- no full penetration and act is
incomplete
• two finger-slight discomfort-indicates full
penetration.
• linear abrasions are found, Tearing of the
sphincter.
• if there is sudden and forceful penetration-
triangular bruised tear
• anal fissures and lesion are seen
• depending upon size of penis the anal traces
are found.
• blood stains, public hair and fecal matter are
found around the anus.
• only proof of sodomy - presence of semen in
anus
• pain is observed during walking