CELL BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Introduction. Structure and functions of a cell. Stem cells and their application.
Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids,
proteins, lipids. Importance of special biomolecules: Properties and functions of
enzymes, vitamins and hormones.
 MODULE-1 CELL BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

• A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s
processes.”

• Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings.

• A cell can replicate itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building blocks
of life.

• Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which is enclosed by a membrane.

• Also present in the cytoplasm are several biomolecules like proteins, nucleic acids and
lipids.

• Moreover, cellular structures called cell organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm.
• 10 micrometres to 20cms.

• Most of the animal cells are small and range between 1-100 micrometres. But
the average size of human body cells is between 20-30 micrometres.

• The organism Mycoplasma gallicepticum is the smallest cell. It is about 10

micrometres in size. The largest cell is the egg of the ostrich. It is about 15 to
18 cm long and wide.
• The study of cells from its basic structure to the functions of every cell organelle is
called Cell Biology.

• Robert Hooke (1665) was the first Biologist who discovered cells.

• All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell
(unicellular), or many cells (multicellular).

• Cells are the building blocks of all living beings. They provide structure to the body
and convert the nutrients taken from the food into energy.

• Cells are complex and their components perform various functions in an organism.
They are of different shapes and sizes, pretty much like bricks of the buildings. Our
body is made up of cells of different shapes and sizes.
• Cells are the lowest level of organisation in every life form. From organism to
organism, the count of cells may vary. Humans have more number of cells
compared to that of bacteria.

• Cells comprise several cell organelles that perform specialised functions to

carry out life processes. Every organelle has a specific structure. The hereditary
material of the organisms is also present in the cells.
Who discovered cells?

• Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665- small rooms named as “cells”.

• Later Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed cells under another compound microscope
with higher magnification- “living”

• In 1883, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, provided the very first insights into the
cell structure. He was able to describe the nucleus present in the cells of orchids.
Characteristics of Cells

• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

• The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded by a

separate membrane.

• The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction
and cell growth.

• Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
Cell and its organelles
Cell Theory

• Schleiden and Schwann first proposed the cell theory, which was later modified by
Rudolf Virchow.
• Postulated and widely accepted hypothesis of how most life on Earth operates is
known as the “cell theory.

Parts of Cell Theory

There are three main postulates of cell theory are as follows:
• First, cells make up all living things.
• Second, cells are the basic building blocks for developing tissues, organs, and fully
developed living creatures.
• The third, and maybe most crucial, aspect of the hypothesis is that cells can only
develop from other cells.
Types of Cells

• Prokaryotic cell
• Eukaryotic cell
 Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular
Cell size Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – 2.0 Size ranges from 10 μm – 100 μm in
μm in diameter diameter
Cell wall Usually present; chemically When present, chemically simple in
complex in nature nature
Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have Present
a nucleoid region in the cell
Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and Present. Comparatively larger in
spherical in shape size and linear in shape
DNA arrangement Circular Linear
Mitochondria Absent Present
Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent Present, cell organelles present
Endoplasmic Absent Present
reticulum
Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes
Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes
Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes are Lysosomes and centrosomes are
absent present
Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis
Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size
Eukaryotic cells
 Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cell Shape
Square or rectangular in shape Irregular or round in shape
Cell Wall
Present Absent
Plasma/Cell Membrane
Present Present
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Present Present
Nucleus
Present and lies on one side of the cell Present and lies in the centre of the cell
Lysosomes
Present but are very rare Present
Golgi Apparatus
Present Present
Cytoplasm
Present Present
Ribosomes
Present Present
Plastids
Present Absent
Vacuoles
Few large or a single, centrally positioned Usually small and numerous
Stem Cells

“Stem cells are special human cells that can develop into many different types of
cells, from muscle cells to brain cells.”

Different from other cells

Stem cells also have the ability to repair damaged cells. These cells have strong healing
power. They can evolve into any type of cell.
 Classification of stem cells based on

Source of origin Type of differentiation

Totipotent
Induced
Embryonic Adult stem Mesenchymal
Pleuripotent Pleuripotent
stem cells cells stem cells
stem cells

Multipotent

Unipotent
Applications of Stem cells
Stem cells can be used in the treatment of several diseases
 Biomolecules

• The Iiving matter is composed of mainly six elements – C, H, O, N, P and

S - constitute about 90% of the dry weight of the human body.
• Several other functionally important elements are also found in the cells
like Ca, K, Na, Cl, Mg, Fe, Cu, Co, I, Zn, F, Mo and Se.

Chemical Molecules of Life

• Life is composed of lifeless chemical molecules.
• [Link] contains about 6,000 different organic compounds.
• Man may contain about 1,00,000 different types of molecules.

All these biomolecules are organic, which means they contain ‘carbon’.
 Biomolecules

Micromolecules Macromolecules

Minerals
Gases Carbohydrates
Water Lipids
Sugars Proteins
Amino acids Nucleic acids
Carbohydrates

• Class of organic compounds that play crucial role in biology and important
source of energy.
• Composed of C, H and O
• General formula Cn(H2O)n.

i. Monosaccharides

• Simplest form of carbs and include glucose and fructose.

• Monosaccharides are simple sugars in which there are one oxygen atom
and two hydrogen atoms for each carbon atom present in the molecule.
• They have general formula as (CH2O)n.
• Monosaccharides are reducing sugars.
• The test for reducing sugar is called Benedict’s test.
• They are sugars, which taste sweet, are soluble in water and are insoluble
in non-polar solvents.
• They exist in straight chains or in the ring or cyclic forms.
• They are classified according to the number of carbon atoms in each
molecule as trioses (3C), tetroses (4C), pentoses (5C), hexoses (6C),
heptoses (7) and so on.
• They are used as a source of energy in respiration.
• They are important building blocks for large molecules.
• The names of all sugars end with -ose.
• Examples: Glyceraldehyde (triose), Erythrose (tetrose), Ribose (pentose),
Glucose (hexose), Fructose (hexose), Galactose (hexose), Sedoheptulose
(heptose), etc.
ii. Disaccharides

• The condensation reaction is the joining of two molecules with the formation
of a new chemical bond and a water molecule is released when the bond is
formed.
• A glycosidic bond is formed between two monosaccharides. If carbon 1 on
one monosaccharide joins to carbon 4 on another monosaccharide, it is called a
1,4-glycosidic bond.

Sucrose is the transport sugar and Lactose is the sugar found in milk
which an important constituent of the diet of young mammals.
iii. Polysaccharides
• These are polymers formed by combining many monosaccharide molecules
(more than two) by condensation reactions.
• Molecules with 3-10 sugar units are known as oligosaccharides while
molecules containing 11 or more monosaccharides are true polysaccharides.
• Polysaccharides do not taste sweet.
• Because their molecules are so enormous, the majority of polysaccharides do
not dissolve in water.
• Polysaccharides made solely from one kind of monosaccharides are
called homopolysaccharides (Starch) while those made of more than one
monomer are called heteropolysaccharides (Hyaluronic acid).
Carbohydrates:
• Carbohydrates are biomolecules consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
atoms.
• It is mainly found in plant foods in the form of glucose and in dairy products
in the form of lactose.

Functions of carbohydrates:
• Carbohydrates are helpful in performing many functions such as breakdown
of protein molecules, dehydration as well as eliminating ketosis.
• They serve as primary energy sources.
• They provide energy.
• They help in the regulation of blood glucose.
• They provide the carbon skeleton for the synthesis of some non-essential
amino acids.
Industrial applications of Carbohydrates

• Food and Beverages

• Pharmaceuticals
• Cosmetics
• Biotechnology
• Research
Proteins

Amino Acids are the organic compounds that combine to form proteins, hence they
are referred to as the building components of proteins.

Nine essential amino acids—histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,

phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine—are not synthesized by mammals
and are therefore dietarily essential or indispensable nutrients.

Nonessential amino acids include: alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine,
glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine.
Protein structure is defined as a polymer of amino acids joined by peptide bond
Classification of Proteins

Based on the molecular shape, proteins can be classified into two types.

1. Fibrous Proteins:
When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by hydrogen
and disulfide bonds, then the fiber-like structure is formed. Such proteins are
generally insoluble in water. These are water-insoluble proteins.
Example – keratin (present in hair, wool, and silk) and myosin (present in
muscles), etc.
2. Globular Proteins:
This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around to give a
spherical shape. These are usually soluble in water.
Example – Insulin and albumins are common examples of globular proteins.
Denaturation of Proteins

• Denaturation is the term used for any change in the three-dimensional structure
of a protein that renders it incapable of performing its assigned function.
• A denatured protein cannot do its job.

Type I: Denaturation by change in pH.

Type II: Chemical Denaturation.
Type III: Denaturation by Heat and Radiation.
Functions of Proteins

1) Catalyzing chemical reactions

• Amylase: An enzyme that breaks down starch into simple sugars like glucose
and maltose. It is found in saliva and pancreatic juice.
• Lipase: An enzyme that breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. It is
found in the pancreas and small intestine.
• Catalase: An enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
It is found in most cells of the body.
• Trypsin: An enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. It is
produced in the pancreas and released into the small intestine.
• ATP synthase: An enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and phosphate. It is found
in the mitochondria of cells.
2) Transporting molecules
• Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that transports
oxygen from the lungs to the tissues in the body.
• Albumin: Albumin is a protein found in blood plasma that helps transport
various substances such as hormones, fatty acids, and drugs throughout the
body.
• Transferrin: Transferrin is a protein that transports iron in the blood from the
site of absorption in the gut to the bone marrow, liver, and other tissues that
require it.
• Apolipoproteins: Apolipoproteins are a family of proteins that transport lipids
(fats) in the bloodstream. Examples include ApoA, ApoB, and ApoE.
• Ferritin: Ferritin is a protein that stores iron in a non-toxic form in the liver,
spleen, and bone marrow.
• Glut transporters: Glut transporters are a family of proteins that transport
glucose and other sugars across cell membranes. Examples include GLUT1 and
GLUT4.
3) Providing mechanical support
• Collagen: Collagen is the main structural protein in the body and provides
support to tissues such as skin, tendons, cartilage, bone, and teeth.
• Elastin: Elastin is a protein that provides elasticity and stretchability to tissues
such as skin, lungs, arteries, and ligaments.
• Keratin: Keratin is a protein that forms the structural basis of hair, nails, and
the outer layer of skin.
• Actin and Myosin: Actin and myosin are proteins that are involved in muscle
contraction and provide the mechanical force required for movement.
• Tubulin: Tubulin is a protein that forms the structural basis of microtubules,
which provide support to cells and are involved in various cellular processes
such as cell division and intracellular transport.
• Laminin: Laminin is a protein that forms part of the extracellular matrix and
provides structural support to cells in tissues such as skin, muscles, and organs.
4) Regulating cell behavior
• Receptor proteins: Receptor proteins are proteins that are located on the
surface of cells and bind to specific signaling molecules such as hormones,
growth factors, and neurotransmitters. When these molecules bind to the
receptor, they trigger a cellular response, such as a change in gene expression
or the activation of an intracellular signaling pathway.

• Enzymes: Enzymes are proteins that catalyze specific chemical reactions in the
body. Many enzymes are involved in regulating cellular behavior, such as
kinases and phosphatases that regulate protein phosphorylation and
dephosphorylation, respectively.

• Cytoskeleton proteins: Cytoskeleton proteins, such as actin and tubulin, play a

critical role in regulating cell shape, movement, and division.
• Transcription factors: Transcription factors are proteins that bind to DNA and
regulate gene expression. They play a critical role in regulating cellular
differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis.

• Adhesion proteins: Adhesion proteins are proteins that are involved in cell-to-cell
and cell to-matrix adhesion. They play a critical role in regulating cell behavior such
as cell migration, tissue development, and wound healing.

• Ion channels: Ion channels are proteins that allow ions to move across the cell
membrane. They play a critical role in regulating cellular excitability and
communication.

Proteins are also involved in immune responses, hormone regulation, and muscle
contraction.
Lipids:

A group of organic compounds that include fats, oils, waxes, and some hormones.

Structure of a lipid molecule

 Phospholipids are compound
lipids, consisting of phosphoric
acids, nitrogen base, alcohol and
fatty acids. These are major
components of the cell membrane
and also provide a fluid character
to the membranes.

Triglycerides are a type of fat, called lipid, that circulate in your blood. They are
the most common type of fat in your body. Triglycerides come from foods,
especially butter, oils, and other fats you eat.
Engineering Applications of Lipids

• Cosmetics: Lipids are commonly used in cosmetics, such as moisturizers, to improve

skin hydration and texture.

• Food industry: Lipids are used as ingredients in food products, such as margarine
and frying oils, to improve texture, flavor, and shelf life.

• Medical devices: Lipids are used in medical devices, such as lipid-based drug
delivery systems, to improve the delivery and efficacy of drugs.

• Biofuels: Lipids, such as vegetable oils and animal fats, can be converted into
biofuels, such as biodiesel and bioethanol, to provide a renewable source of
energy.

• Surface modification: Lipids can be used to modify the surface properties of

materials, such as metals and polymers, to improve their performance and
biocompatibility.

• Surfactants: Lipids are used as surfactants, which are compounds that reduce
surface tension and improve the mixing of oil and water-based substances.
Properties and Functions of Nucleic Acids: Transcription Translation
DNA RNA Protein
Reverse
Transcription
The Functions of Nucleic Acids:
• Nucleic acids are responsible for the transmission of inherent characters
from parent to offspring.
• They are responsible for the synthesis of protein in our body
• DNA fingerprinting is a method used by forensic experts to determine
paternity. It is also used for the identification of criminals. It has also played
a major role in studies regarding biological evolution and genetics.
• Loss of DNA content is linked to many diseases.
• All the information of a cell is stored in DNA.
Properties and functions of enzymes:

Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts in biological reactions. They speed up the
rate of chemical reactions without being consumed in the process. Enzymes are specific
.
The six kinds of enzymes are hydrolases, oxidoreductases, lyases, transferases,
ligases and isomerases.
EC 1, Oxidoreductases: catalyze oxidation/reduction reactions.
EC 2, Transferases: transfer a functional group (e.g. a methyl or phosphate group).
EC 3, Hydrolases: catalyze the hydrolysis of various bonds
EC 4, Lyases: cleave various bonds by means other than hydrolysis and oxidation.
EC 5, Isomerases: catalyze isomerization changes within a single molecule
EC 6, Ligases: join two molecules with covalent bonds.
Types of Enzyme Inhibition
Properties and Functions of Vitamins:

• Vitamins are organic molecules that serve as an essential nutrient for most living
organisms for the smooth functioning of their metabolism.
• Vitamins are essential to our body as they perform various activities that promote a
healthy life.
• Vitamins are the compounds that people need in less quantities. The body does not
produce vitamins on its own. Vitamins are to be obtained from the food we eat.
• Vitamins are essential because they prevent various health issues. If the body lacks
any vitamin, it may develop a deficiency and a related disease.
• Vitamin requirements vary with different organisms. For example, dogs can produce
their vitamin C they need, but humans need to acquire that from their diet.
Classification of Vitamins

Vitamins are generally classified as water-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble

vitamins.

1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat-soluble. These are stored in adipose tissues and
hence are called fat-soluble vitamins.

2. Water-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamins in B-group and vitamin C are water-soluble and cannot be stored in our
bodies as they pass with the water in urine. These vitamins must be supplied to
our bodies with regular diets.
The main functions of vitamins are

• Help the body maintain good health

• Regulating the tissues and help in repairing cells

• Fight against ageing

• Formation of new cells

• Keeping bones, teeth and nails healthy.

• Help the muscles and ligaments function smoothly.

Properties and Functions of Hormones:

Hormones are various chemicals released within the human body that regulate
and control the activities of multiple organs. The introduction of hormones to
the blood takes place via endocrine glands.

Properties of hormones are

1. Hormones are secreted from their source (an endocrine glad) directly into the blood.
2. They regulate the physiological processes by chemical means. They affect the enzyme
systems of the body.
3. They act on target organs or cells usually away from the source.
4. Hormones produced in one species usually show similar influence in other species.
5. They are produced in very small quantities and are biologically very active.
6. Chemically, some hormones are peptides, amines or steroids.
7. Their excess (hypersecretion) or deficiency (hyposecretion), both may lead to serious
consequences.
Functions of Hormones
The following are a few important functions that hormones perform:
• Metabolism of food.
• Development and growth.
• Controlling hunger and thirst.
• Preserving one's body's temperature.
• Maintain Homeostasis
• Regulating sleep and wake cycle
• Regulating mental and emotional functions.
• Establishing and sustaining sexual development and reproduction