Chapter-4

Energy Considerations in Steady Flow

 First Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law of thermodynamics tells us that
energy can be neither created nor destroyed.
Moreover, all forms of energy are equivalent.
4.1 Kinetic Energy Of A Flowing Fluid
• A body of mass m when moving at a velocity V
possesses a kinetic energy,
• (Velocity head)
• In SI units V2/2g is expressed as N.m/N = m
• As velocities of different particles are not same
therefore

• Coefficient of velocity, α = 2 for laminar flow

• And α = 1.06 (1.01 to 1.15) for turbulent flow
4.2 Potential Energy
• PE = Wz
4.3 Internal Energy
• It is due to motion of molecules and forces of attraction
between them. It is a function of temperature.
• It can be expressed as
• Internal energy per unit mass, i or in terms of internal
energy per unit weight, I. Note that
• As we are only interested in differences therefore zero of
the internal energy may be taken at any temperature.
• units are N.m/kg
• units are N.m/N = m
4.4 General Equation for Steady Flow of any Fluid
• The first law of thermodynamics for steady flow
may be stated as:
•
• For steady flow = G (Eq. 3.9b)
4.4 General Equation for Steady Flow of any Fluid (continued)
• During the short time interval dt

• hM is the energy put into the flow by machine per unit weight
of flowing fluid, may be positive (pump) or negative (turbine).
• The heat transferred from an external source into the fluid
system over time interval dt is

• Where QH is the energy put into the flow by the external heat source per unit
weight of flowing fluid (positive). If the heat flow is out of the fluid, the value of
QH is negative.
• During time interval dt

• Hence
•
4.4 General Equation for Steady Flow of any Fluid (continued)
• The energy which enters at section 1 during time dt is

And
• –

•
• For steady flow
• ++ =

• = 4.5
• This equation applies to liquids, gases, and vapors, and to ideal fluids as well as to
real fluids with friction.
• The general energy equation and continuity equation are two important keys to
many solution of flow problems. For compressible fluid flow problems, there is third
equation, gas equation, which gives their solution.
4.5 Energy Equation for Steady Flow of Incompressible Fluids
• = 4.5
• For incompressible fluid,
• Assume that
• = (4.6) (4.6)

(4.7)
• Where hL is the fluid-friction energy loss per unit weight of fluid. The foregoing may

(4.8)
be written as

If there is no machine between the sections 1 and 2 and if no heat

•

is
•

gained or lost, by substituting equation 4.8 in equation 4.6;

• (4.9)
• If hL is equal to zero (ideal fluid), then
• (4.10)
• (4.11)
• The equation in either of these last two forms is known as Bernoulli’s theorem. Note
that Bernoulli’s theorem is for a frictionless incompressible fluid and for steady flow.
It can be applied to incompressible real fluids where frictional effects are very small
 Example 4.1
• A liquid with a specific gravity of 1.26 flows in a pipe at a rate of 700 L/s. At a point where the
pipe diameter is 60 cm, the pressure is 300 kN/m 2. Find the pressure at a second point where
the pipe diameter is 30 cm if the second point is 1.0m lower than the first point. Neglect head
loss.
• Given:

• (assume datum line passes through first point)

• Required:

• Solution:

• So

• And
 Example 4.2
• Water flows at 10 m3/s in a 150 cm diameter pipe; the head loss in a 1000
m length of this pipe is 20 m. Find the increase in water temperature
assuming no heat enters or leaves the pipe.
 4.6 Head (H)
• Head is energy per unit weight of fluid
• (4.12)
• Z = Elevation head, m
• = Pressure head, m
• = Velocity head, m
• H = Head, m (N.m of energy per N of fluid)
• So equation 4.10 may be written as H1 = H2
• If head loss is there H1 = H2 + hL (4.13)
equivalent to
And if machine is there also, then
• H1 + hM = H2 + hL (4.14)
 4.7 Power Considerations in Fluid Flow
•
•
• (4.15)
•
• Where power is in W
= the unit weight (Specific Weight) of fluid, N/m 3,
Q = the rate of flow, m3/s,
H = the energy the head, m
• If is in kN/m3 (as usual) then power will be in kW
• H may be any head for which corresponding power is desired. For example:
H = ht, to find power extracted from flow by a turbine,
H = hp, to find power put in the flow by a pump,
H = hL, to find power lost in flow due to friction,
H = /2g, to find power of a jet, where V j = jet velocity
 Example 4.3 A liquid with a specific gravity of 1.26 is being pumped in a pipe line from A to B. At point A the pipe diameter is 60 cm and the pressure
is 300 kPa. At point B, the pipe diameter is 30 cm and the pressure is 330 kPa. Point B is 1.0 m lower than A. Find the flow rate if the pump puts 16 kW
into the flow. Neglect head loss

• Given:

• (assume datum line passes

through first point) • Now

• Pump Power = 16 kW
• Required:

• Solution:
• Pump Power
 Example 4.4
• Find the rate of energy loss due to friction for the pipe as Illustrated in example
4.2.
• Example 4.2: Water flows at 10 m3/s in a 150 cm diameter pipe; the head loss in a
1000 m length of this pipe is 20 m. Find the increase in water temperature
assuming no heat enters or leaves the pipe.
 4.8 Cavitation
• In liquid flow problems possibility of cavitation must be investigated.
• According to Bernoulli’s theorem (4.10)
If at any section the velocity head increases, there must be a corresponding decrease in the pressure head. For
any liquid there is a minimum absolute pressure possible, namely vapor pressure of the liquid. The vapor
pressure depends upon the liquid and its temperature. If the calculation results in a lower absolute pressure
than the vapor pressure, then there will start boiling and flow will be stopped. The criterion with respect to
cavitation is as follows:
(4.18)
(2.7)

(4.19)

The above equation shows that before cavitation the pressure may be negative but not more than Cavitation
will result in bubble formation and then its collapse. This continuous process will cause metal damage, eg;
pumps impellers, turbine runners, etc. are frequently damaged by cavitation.
In order to avoid cavitation, it is necessary that the absolute pressure at every point be above the vapor
pressure. It can be achieved by:
1) Placing the device below the intake level so that the liquid flows to it by gravity rather than being taken
up by suction
2) By designing the machine so that there are no local velocities high enough to produce such a low
pressure
Example 4.5 A liquid (s=0.86) with a vapor pressure of 26 kN/m2, abs flows through the
horizontal constriction in the accompanying figure. Atmospheric pressure is 68 cm of Hg. Find
the maximum theoretical flow rate (i.e. at which Q does cavitation occur?). Neglect head loss.

• Given:

• From Figure;

• (horizontal pipe)
• Required:
• Q at cavitation =? • And for limiting discharge
4.12 Definition of Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Line (EL)
• When dealing with flow problems involving
liquids the concept of energy line and
hydraulic grade line is usually advantageous.
Even with gas flow the concept can be useful.
• is referred to as the static head, or
piezometer head, because it represents the
level to which liquid will rise in a piezometer
tube.
• The piezometeric head line, or hydraulic
grade line (HGL), is a line drawn through the
tops of the piezometer columns.
• A pitot tube, a small open tube with its open
end pointing upstream, will intercept the
kinetic energy of the flow and hence indicate
the total energy head,
• The line sketched through the pitot-tube
liquid levels is known as the energy line (EL).
• For flow of an ideal fluid, the energy line is
horizontal since there is no head loss.
• For real fluid EL varies as pitot tube is moved
across the section. Also EL is not horizontal in
Illustrative Example 4.7 A pipeline with a pump leads to a nozzle as shown in the accompanying figure. Find the flow rate
when the pump develops a head of 24 m. Assume that the head loss In the 15 cm-diameter pipe may be expressed by , while
the head loss in the 10 cm-diameter pipe is . Sketch the energy line and hydraulic grade line, and find the pressure head at
the suction side.

From continuity
• Given:

Equation
•

• So

• ,,
• Required:

• Plot Energy line (EL) and

Hydraulic grade line (HGL)
• So •
• so
•
• so
• and

• and
 Assignment # 5
• Book 2 Examples 7.1 to 7.7
• Book 1 Examples 4.1 to 4.5 and 4.7
• Problem-1 Repeat Example 4.7 if pump puts 75 kW instead of 24 m head.
• Problem-2 A pipeline with two pumps leads to a nozzle as shown in the accompanying Figure. Find
the flow rate when the pumps P1 and P2 develop head of 26 m and 38 m. Assume that the head loss
in the 20 cm-diameter pipe may be expressed by hL1 = 7/2g, while the loss in the 15 cm-diameter hL2 =
14 /2g while in the third pipe is hL3 = 18/2g. Sketch the EL and HGL, and find the pressure head at the
suction and delivery sides of pumps.
• (Only for problem-1 and 2: Plot the diagram and EL and HGL on graph paper.
• Problem 1: Length of diagram = 19 cm, Reservoir = 3 cm, pipe 1 = 6 cm, pump = 1 cm, pipe 2 = 9 cm,
Problem 2: Length of diagram = 20 cm, Reservoir = 2 cm, pipe 1 = 5 cm, pump 1 = 1 cm, pipe 2 = 5 cm,
pump 2 = 1 cm, pipe 3 = 6 cm.)
• Problem-3 Repeat P-2 if pumps put 55 kW and 75 kW instead of 26 m and 38 m.
• Problem-4 Repeat P-2 if P1 puts 55 kW and P2 puts 38 m.

• Problem-5 Repeat Example 4.3 if liquid has s = 0.70 + Sr. # X 0.01