Spatial Analysis

Geog-3205

Khurram Chohan

Foundations for Applied GIS

Spatial Analysis
Geographic information analysis is concerned with investigating the patterns that arise as a result of processes that may be operating in space.

Representation, Description , Measurement, Comparison , and generation of spatial pattern are the main techniques / methods to Geographic Information Analysis.

Literature Review
Spatial data manipulation, usually in a geographic information system (GIS), is often referred to as spatial analysis, particularly in GIS companies' promotional material. Your GIS manuals will give you a good sense of the scope of these techniques, as will texts by Tomlin (1990) and, more recently, Mitchell (1999). Buffering Point in Polygon..Queries

Literature Review
Spatial data analysis is descriptive and exploratory. These are important first steps in all spatial analysis, and often all that can be done with very large and complex data sets. Books by geographers such as Unwin (1981), Bailey and Gatrell (1995), and Fotheringham et al. (2000)

Literature Review
Spatial statistical analysis employs statistical methods to interrogate spatial data to determine whether or not the data are "typical" or "unexpected" relative to a statistical model.
By Ripley (1981, 1988), niggle (1983), and Cressie (1991).

Literature Review
Spatial mode involves constructing models to predict spatial outcomes. In human geography, models are used to predict flows of people and goods between places or to optimize the location of facilities (Wilson, 1974, 2000)

In environmental science, models may attempt to simulate the dynamics of natural processes (Ford, 1999).

Spatial Data Types

Raster / Image Data

Vector Data

Spatial Data Types

Vector View

It records locational coordinates of points , Lines, and areas.

The vector model conforms to an object view of the world, where space is thought of as an empty container occupied by different sorts of objects.

Spatial Data Types

Raster / Image View

Instead of starting with objects on the ground, a grid of small units of Earth's surface (called pixels) is defined.

For each pixel, the value, or presence or absence of something of interest, is then recorded.

Higher Level Abstraction of Spatial Data Types

An Object The Object View

The Field View

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Higher Level Abstraction of Spatial Data Types

The Object View world is considered as a series of entities located in space. Entities are (usually) real You can touch them, stand in them, perhaps even move them around.

Example..Places can be occupied by any number of objects. A house can exist in a census tract, which may also contain lampposts, bus stops, road segments, parks, and so on.
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Higher Level Abstraction of Spatial Data Types

The Object View The object view has advantages when well-defined objects change in time: for example, the changing data for a census area object over a series of population censuses.

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Higher Level Abstraction of Spatial Data Types

An Object An object is a digital representation of all or part of an entity. Objects may be classified into different object types: for 'example, into point objects, line objects, and area objects. Example------woods and fields

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Higher Level Abstraction of Spatial Data Types

The Field View In the field view, the world is made up of properties varying continuously across space. Example-----Earth SurfaceWhere Elevation Varies

Similarly, we can code the ground in a grid cell as either having a house on it or not. The result is also a field, in this case of binary numbers where 1=house and 0= no house.
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Higher Level Abstraction of Spatial Data Types

Raster Data Model is not only the one way to represent the geographic variations where data are represented in regularly shaped Pixels.

An alternative way to represent surface in a mesh of non-overlapping triangles called Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) A good example is a map of soil type. Everywhere has a soil, so we have spatial continuity, and we also have self-definition by the soil type involved, so this is a field view.
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Higher Level Abstraction of Spatial Data Types

SOIL MAP

RASTER

TIN
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Higher Level Abstraction of Spatial Data Types

Land Use Maps These types have been given different names: kcolor maps , Black and White K-Color technique, each type is assigned a specific color required to show the variation.

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Right Choice to representation of spatial world

Real world is represented in the form of elements and these elements are stored in database. Entity Vs. Object Entity must be identifiable; if you can not see it, you can not record it.

Entity must be relevant, and of interest.

Entity must be describable. Therefore, it must have attribute / characteristics so that we can record it.

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Right Choice to representation of spatial world

Definition of an Entity:

Entity is defined as a phenomenon of interest in reality that is not further subdivided into phenomena of the same kind.

Examples:

Road Network Vs. Roads Forest Vs. stands.

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Right Choice for better representation of spatial world

What you want to do with the data entered into the computer system? What should be the map design and objectives? What should be the model to represent real world?

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Types of Spatial Objects

Point: an object with no length,L0 Line : an object having the same spatial dimension as any simple length, that is, L 1. Area : an object with spatial dimension length squared, or L2

Cartographic conventions.

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Types of Spatial Objects

Theoretical and Practical Issues There is a need to separate the representation of an object from its fundamental spatial characteristics. For example, a line object may be used to mark the edge of an area. Geographic scale is important.

A railway station may be represented as a point, a set of lines, or an area.

The objects discussed are often two-dimensional

Need to represent Elevation / Depth

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Types of Spatial Objects

This view of the world is a static one.

This is fine for some problems, but in many applications our main interest is in how things evolve and change over time.

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Scales for attribute description

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Scales for attribute description

It is understood that reality represented in point, line, polygon. Geometric entities are embedded with aspatial data. The range of possible attribute is huge: Color, age ,use, ownership, and so on. Attributes can be classified into types based on their level of measurements.

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Scales for attribute description

Nominal Scale Each value is a distinct category, serving only to label or name the phenomenon. We call certain buildings "shops" and there is no loss of information if these are called "category 2" instead. Categories must be inclusive / Mutually exclusive

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Scales for attribute description

Ordinal Scale Nominal scale does not imply relationships between classes. Ordinal (Ranks)
Good Better Best

Ordinal scale rank classes according to some criterion.

Classification of land according to its agriculture potential

Note: Attributes measured on the nominal and ordinal scales are often referred to collectively as categorical data.
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Scales for attribute description

Interval Scale: The interval level of measurement has the property that differences or distances between categories are defined using fixed equal units.
Interval (numeric)
Age

Income

interval scales lack an inherent zero

Thermometers typically measure on an interval scale, ensuring that the difference between, say, 25 and 35"C is the same as that between 75.5F and 85.5F.
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Scales for attribute description

Ratio Scale
Ratio (scale)
Length Area

Example

If place A is 10 km (6.2137 miles) from B and 20 km (12.4274 miles) from C, the ratio of the distances is distance AB / distance AC = 10 / 20 = 1/2

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Spatial Data Types In Everyday Life

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Spatial Data Manipulation and Analysis

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Spatial Data Manipulation and Analysis

Mapping and Visualization Geometric Intersections, Buffering, and
Point-in-Polygon Tests

Map Overlay Linking GIS and Spatial Anaysis

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Mapping and Visualization

maps have been used for centuries as a data storage and access mechanism for topographic and cadastral (land ownership) information.

Thematic Maps are being used to display statistic data and result of other systematic surveys.

Maps created specifically to highlight the distribution of a particular phenomenon or theme are called Thematic Maps

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Mapping and Visualization

Population change in the United States, by county, from 1990 to 2000. (Data from 1990 & 2000 decennial censuses).

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Mapping and Visualization

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Mapping and Visualization

A "dot density" map that depicts count data. Cartography by Geoff Hatchard.

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Mapping and Visualization

A "proportional circle" map that depicts count data. Cartography by Geoff Hatchard.

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Mapping and Visualization

A "pie chart " map that depicts rate data. Cartography by Geoff Hatchard.

A pie chart is a circular chart

which is divided into sectors,

illustrating proportion

In a pie chart, the arc length

of each sector is proportional

to the quantity it represents

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Mapping and Visualization

A "bar/column chart" map that depicts rate data. Cartography by Geoff Hatchard.

A bar chart or bar graph is a

chart with rectangular bars

with lengths proportional to the values that they represent.

The bars can be plotted

vertically or horizontally.

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Mapping and Visualization

A "graduated color" (choropleth) map that depicts density data. Cartography by Geoff Hatchard.

A choropleth map is a thematic map

in which areas are shaded

or patterned in proportion to the measurement of the statistical variable being displayed on the map, such as population density or per-capita income.
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Mapping and Visualization

A "unique values" map that depicts density data. Note that the legend, which in the original shows one category for each state, is trimmed off. Cartography by Geoff Hatchard.

Logically or not, people prefer colorful maps.

For this reason some

might be tempted to
choose Arc Map's Unique Values option to map rates, densities, or even counts. This option assigns a unique color to each data value
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Broad Street cholera outbreak in Soho, London 1854.

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Geometric Intersections, Buffering, and pointin-polygon Tests

Is a measure of the distance between features. It is most commonly measured in units of length but can be measured in other units. Such as travel time or noise level Four parameters must be specified to measure
Parameters
Target Location A unit of measure Function to calculate proximity. The area to be analyzed

Parameters (Examples)
A Road, A hospital, or A park Distance in meters Straight line distance, travel time. The area to be analyzed
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Geometric Intersections, Buffering, and pointin-polygon Tests

we can easily determine how many cases of a disease occur within various distances of certain kinds of factory or other facility.

We need geocoded data for cases of the disease and also for the facilities.
Point-in-polygon operations allow us to determine how many cases of the disease occur in the relevant buffer areas

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Map Overlay
In a map overlay two or more layers are overlaid in order to produce a new layer.

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Map Overlay

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Map Overlay

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Linking GIS and spatial analysis

The GIB view of spatial data and that of spatial analysis are different. Spatial analysis is not widely understood. The spatial analysis perspective can sometimes obscure the advantages of GIS.

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