EE 121: ELECTRONIC DEVICES

AND CIRCUITS
Dr. (Mrs.) Priscilla Ajiboye
 Course Content

Semiconduc Operational
Introduction Semiconductor
tor Amplifiers and
to Diodes & Transistor as an
Materials Switching
Electronics Applications Amplifier
and Theory
Properties

Semiconduc Bipolar
tor Diodes Junction
Transistor

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Course Content
Grading System:
• Exams 60%
• Continuous Assessments 40%

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Recommended Textbooks
1. Electronic Principles by Albert Pual Malvino and David
Bates

2. Principles of Electronics by V K Mehta

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 1
INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRONICS

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Introduction to Electronics
What is Electronics
• Electronics is the branch of physics and engineering concerned with
the design of circuits using transistors and microchips, and with the
behavior and movement of electrons in a semiconductor, conductor,
vacuum, or gas

• Electronics is also the science of how to control electric energy

It also deals with circuits that involves active components such as

• Transistors
•

• Integrated circuits
And associated electrical components such as
• Resistors
•

• Inductors 6
Introduction to Electronics
Thus, basic electronic components includes resistors, capacitors,
inductors, transformers, diodes, transistors and integrated circuits
•

Resistance
• The resistance of a material is the opposing force that a flowing
charge encounters
• All materials have a resistance that is dependent on cross-sectional
area, material type and temperature.
• A resistor dissipates power in the form of heat
A resistor in an electronic circuit can be in series, parallel, star or
delta
•

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Introduction to Electronics
Capacitor
• A capacitor is used to store charge for a short amount of time
• A capacitor is a device that stores energy in electric field.
• Two conductive plates separated by a non-conductive material.
• Think of a capacitor as very small, temporary storage battery
Capacitors are rated by:
• Amount of charge that can be held. (in Farad)
•

• The voltage handling capabilities. (in Volts)

• Insulating material between plates (dielectric)

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Introduction to Electronics
Capacitor
• When exposed to DC, the capacitor charges and holds the charge as
long as the DC voltage is applied.
• The capacitor essentially blocks DC current from passing through.
• A capacitor passes AC
The unit of capacitance is the farad. A single farad is a huge amount
of capacitance.
•

Most electronic devices use capacitors that have a very tiny fraction
of a farad.
•

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Introduction to Electronics
Capacitor

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Introduction to Electronics
Capacitor

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Introduction to Electronics
Inductors
• Like capacitors, inductors temporarily store energy.
• Unlike capacitors, Inductors store energy in a magnetic field, not an
electric field.
• When the source of electrons is removed, the magnetic field
collapses immediately.
• Inductors are simply coils of wire.
• Can be air wound (nothing in the middle of the coil)
• Can be wound around a permeable material (material that
concentrates magnetic fields)
• Can be wound around a circular form (toroid)

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Introduction to Electronics
Inductors
• Inductance is measured in Henry(s).
• A Henry is a measure of the intensity of the magnetic field that is
produced.
• Typical inductor values used in electronics are in the range of milli
Henry (1/1000) and micro Henry (1/1,000,000)
• The amount of inductance is influenced by a number of factors:
• Number of coil turns.
• Diameter of coil.
• Spacing between turns.
• Size of the wire used.
• Type of material inside the coil.

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Introduction to Electronics
Inductors
• Because the magnetic field surrounding an inductor can cut across
another inductor in close proximity, the changing magnetic field in
one can cause current to flow in the other … the basis of
transformers.
• When DC current is applied to an inductor, the wire in the inductor
momentarily appears as a short circuit and maximum current flows.

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Introduction to Electronics
Inductors

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Introduction to Electronics
Transformers
• The transformer can be used to step up or step down AC voltage

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 2
SEMICONDUCTOR
MATERIALS AND
PROPERTIES

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CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS
AND SEMICONDUCTORS

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Electronic Materials
The goal of electronic materials is to generate and control the flow of
an electrical current.
Electronic materials can be classified into the following:
1. Conductors
Have low resistance which allows electrical current flow.

2. Insulators
have high resistance which suppresses electrical current flow.

3. Semiconductors
Can allow or suppress electrical current flow

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Conductors, semiconductors and
insulators
The difference in the behaviour of electronic materials in terms of their
conductivity can be beautifully explained with the help of energy bands.

Insulators Conductors Semi – Conductors

Large energy Conduction band and Small energy difference
difference between valence band overlap between conduction band
conduction band and and valence band
valence band
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Conductors
Good conductors have low resistance so electrons flow through them
with ease.
Best element conductors include:
• Copper, silver, gold, aluminium, & nickel.

Alloys are also good conductors:

• Brass & steel

Good conductors can also be liquid:

• Salt water

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Atomic Structure of Conductors
The atomic structure of good
conductors usually includes only one
•

electron in their outer shell.

• It is called a valence electron.

It is easily striped from the atom,

producing current flow.
•

Copper Atom

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Insulators
Insulators have a high resistance so current does not flow in
them.
•

• Good insulators include: Glass, ceramic, plastics, & wood

• Most insulators are compounds of several elements.

The atoms are tightly bound to one another so electrons are

difficult to strip away for current flow.
•

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Semi-Conductors
A semiconductor is a material with conducting properties
between those of a good insulator and a good conductor.
•

Common elements such as carbon, silicon, and germanium

are semiconductors.
•

• Silicon is the best and most widely used semiconductor.

Questions
1. Why is Silicon the most widely used semiconductor?
2. Why is Silicon preferred to Germanium?
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Semi-Conductors Elements in the Periodic Table
Question
1. Why are Group 2 or
Group 6 elements not
used to dope
semiconductors?

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Semi-Conductor Valence Orbit

The main characteristic of

semiconductor element is that it has
four electrons in its outer or valence
orbit.
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Crystal Lattice Structure
A crystal is a substance whose
atoms or molecules are arranged
•

in a ordered pattern.

The unique capability of

semiconductor atoms is their
•

ability to link together to form a

physical structure called a 2-D Structure

crystal lattice.

The atoms link together with one

another sharing their outer
•

electrons.
3-D Structure 27
Silicon
Silicon is a tetravalent element, which means it has four valence
electrons and four vacancies.
•

In intrinsic (pure) silicon, atoms join together by forming covalent

bonds. Each atom shares its valence electrons with each of four
•

adjacent neighbours effectively filling its outer shell.

When temperature goes up, electrons can become free to move
about the Si lattice.
•

• Atomic density: 5 x 1022 atoms/cm3

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Electronic Properties of Si
• Silicon is a semiconductor material.
• Pure Si has a relatively high electrical resistivity at room temperature.

There are two(2) types of mobile charge-carriers in Si:

• Electrons - negatively charged
• Holes - are positively charged.

The concentration (#/cm3) of conduction electrons & holes in a

semiconductor can be modulated in several ways:
• by adding special impurity atoms ( dopants )
• by applying an electric field
• by changing the temperature
• by irradiation
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 Classification of
Semiconductors

“
Semiconductors are classified into two types:
a) Intrinsic semiconductors

b) Extrinsic semiconductors

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Intrinsic Semiconductors
A semiconductor is said to be intrinsic if it contains no impurities and
no crystalline defects.
•

• The structure has zero overall charge.

Behaviour at absolute zero

• At absolute zero, every electron is at the lowest energy state.
• Electrons occupy all of the electronic states in the valence band, and
the states in the conduction band are empty.
• The intrinsic semiconductor thus behaves as a perfect insulator at
absolute zero temperature.
• However, the covalent bonds can be broken if sufficient energy is
applied to the semiconductor.

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Intrinsic Semiconductors
Behaviour at room or higher temperatures
• At room or higher temperatures, electrons acquire thermal energy,
which is transferred to them from the crystal lattice.

The atoms in the crystal lattice vibrate, and these vibrations can be
transmitted through the crystal as acoustic waves called phonons.
•

Phonons can excite electrons from the valence band (VB) to the
conduction band (CB).
•

Electrons leaving the VB to CB creates a vacancy called hole in the

valence band. A hole is a vacancy in a covalent bond with a unit
•

positive charge associated with it.

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Intrinsic Semiconductors
Behaviour at room or higher temperatures
• The electron is now free, and there is a free hole in the valence band.

Every electron that escapes to conduction band creates a

corresponding hole in the valence band, creating an electron-hole
•

pair.

When electron-hole pair is created by absorption of phonons, we call

the process thermal generation.
•

If photons provide the energy, the process is termed optical

generation.
•

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Doping
To increase the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor, one can
introduce an impurity in a process known as doping.
•

• “Impurities” are different elements.

These impurities are atoms from column III or V of the periodic table.
They are referred to as dopants
•

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Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Intrinsic conduction is very small.
Conductivity levels can be raised and controlled by doping with
minute levels of impurity atoms to give extrinsic or doped
•

semiconductors.
By controlling the doping amount, virtually any resistance can be
achieved.
•

Extrinsic semiconductors may be further divided into either

• N-type
• P-type

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N-type Semiconductors
This is formed by adding a pentavalent atom to the intrinsic
semiconductor.
•

• Pentavalent elements include Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony etc.

These atoms with five valence electrons are known as donor atoms
because they provide an extra electron to the semiconductor’s
•

crystal structure.

• The extra electron becomes a conduction electron.

If you use lots of phosphorus/arsenic atoms for doping, there will

be lots of extra electrons so the resistance of the material will be
•

low and current will flow freely.

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N-type Semiconductors

For N-type, n >> p;

n is the majority carrier
concentration nn
p is the minority carrier 37
P-type Semiconductors
• Here the doping atom has only three electrons in its outer shell.

Atoms with 3 electrons in the outer shell are also known as trivalent
elements
•

• Trivalent elements includes Boron, Aluminium, Gallium etc.

The 3 electrons in the outer orbit do form covalent bonds with its
neighboring semiconductor atoms as before. But one electron is
•

missing from the bond.

This place where a fourth electron should be in the parent atom is

referred to as a hole.
•
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P-type Semiconductors
Holes become a type of current carrier like the electron to support
current flow.
•

• The freed hole is available for conduction.

Thus the holes are now ready to accept electrons so these trivalent
elements are also known as acceptors
•

The energy needed to free the electron from its parent is usually
small compared to the thermal energy so each impurity atom
•

contributes one hole for conduction (fully ionised).

“P” is for positive, which is the charge of a hole and hence the name39
P-type
•
P-type Semiconductors

For P-type, p >> n;

p is the majority carrier concentration pp
n is the minority carrier concentration np
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Summary of Charge Carriers

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Terminologies
▷ P-type Region: Contains an
abundance of holes (positive charge
carriers).

▷ N-type Region: Contains an

abundance of electrons (negative
charge carriers).

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Terminologies
▷ Electric Field: Formed due to the
separation of charges in the
depletion region, creating a potential
barrier.

▷ Depletion Region: The area around

the junction where electrons and
holes have diffused and recombined,
resulting in a region depleted of free
charge carriers.
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Terminologies
▷ Zero Bias (No External Voltage): At
equilibrium, diffusion of electrons and holes
across the junction leads to the formation of the
depletion region, establishing an internal
electric field that opposes further diffusion.

▷ Forward Bias: Applying a positive voltage to

the p-type region relative to the n-type reduces
the potential barrier, allowing charge carriers
to cross the junction, resulting in current flow.

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Terminologies
▷ Reverse Bias: Applying a negative voltage to
the p-type region increases the potential
barrier, widening the depletion region and
preventing current flow, except for a minimal
leakage current.

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Terminologies
Donor Majority carrier
Impurity atom that increases n The most abundant carrier

Minority carrier
Acceptor the least abundant carrier
Impurity atom that increases p
Intrinsic semiconductor
n = p = ni
N-type material
Contains more electrons than Extrinsic semiconductor
holes Doped semiconductor

P-type material
Contains more holes than
electrons 52
 In its pure state, semiconductor material is an excellent insulator.
Summary
•

• The commonly used semiconductor material is silicon.

Semiconductor materials can be doped with other atoms to add or

subtract electrons.
•

• An N-type semiconductor material has extra electrons.

In an N-type semiconductor, conduction is mainly due to electrons

(negative charges).
•

• Positive charges (holes) are the minority carriers.

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Summary
A P-type semiconductor material has a shortage of electrons with
vacancies called holes.
•

In a P-type semiconductor, conduction is mainly due to holes (positive

charges).
•

• Negative charges (electrons) are the minority carriers.

The heavier the doping, the greater the conductivity or the lower the
resistance.
•

By controlling the doping of silicon the semiconductor material can be

made as conductive as desired.
•
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Thanks!
Any question?

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