Module 4
Oscillators
Comparison between amplifiers and
oscillators
An amplifier is essentially an energy conversion device ie a device ,
which gets energy from the dc source and converts it into an ac
energy at the same frequency as that of the input signal
If there is no input signal then no energy conversion takes place
An oscillator is device which produces an output signal without any
input signal of any desired frequency
It keeps producing an output signal, so long as the dc power is
supplied
An oscillator does not take require any external signal to start or
maintain energy conversion process
Oscillators
If the feedback signal is applied in such a way that it is in phase with
the input signal and thus increases it, then it is called a positive
feedback
For positive feedback, (1 -) <1, therefore ’ > Thus positive feedback
increases gain of an amplifier(regenerative)
’
An oscillator provides a constantly varying amplified output signal of
any desired frequency
Barkhausen criteria
Conditions which are required to be satisfied to operate the circuit as an
oscillator are called as “Barkhausen criterion”
The Barkhausen criterion states that:
The loop gain is equal to unity in absolute magnitude, that is, | β A | = 1
and
The phase shift around the loop is zero or an integer multiple of 2π:
∠ β A = 2 π n, n ∈ 0, 1, 2,….
Classification of Oscillators
Sinusoidal oscillators or harmonic oscillators
The oscillators which produce an output having a sine
waveform are called sinusoidal oscillators. Such oscillators
can provide output at frequencies ranging from 20Hz to 1
GHz
Non sinusoidal oscillators or relaxation oscillators
The oscillators, which produce an output having a sine,
square or rectangular or sawtooth waveform are called non-
sinusoidal oscillators or relaxation oscillators. Such
oscillators can provide output at frequencies ranging from 0
to 20 MHz
Classification of Sinusoidal
oscillators
1. Crystal oscillators
These oscillators uses quartz crystals
generates highly stabilized output signal with frequencies
up to 1 MHz
2. RC oscillators
These oscillators uses resistors and capacitors
Generates low frequency signals or audio frequency signals
hence they are also known as AF amplifiers
Phase shift oscillator, Wein bridge oscillator, etc are RC
oscillators
3. Tuned circuit oscillators
These oscillators uses a tuned circuit consisting of inductors and
capacitors
Generates high frequency signals hence they are also known as RF
amplifiers
Hartley oscillator, Colpitts oscillator, Clapp oscillator etc are tuned
circuit oscillators
[Link] resistance oscillators
These oscillators use negative resistance characteristic of the devices
such as tunnel diodes
Crystal oscillators
The crystal oscillator uses a piezo electric crystal such as quartz as a
resonant tank circuit
High degree of frequency stability and accuracy
They are used in applications where frequency stability is essential
Widely used in communication transmitters, digital watches and clock
etc.
Piezoelectric effect
When an ac voltage is applied across a quartz crystal it vibrates at
the frequency of the applied voltage. Conversely if a mechanical force
is applied to vibrate a quartz crystal it generates an ac voltage
Rochelle salt , tourmaline , quartz etc are piezoelectric crystals
Symbol Equivalent Impedance versus frequency
circuit graph
Characteristics of Quartz crystal
A rectangular slab made out of quartz crystal is mounted between
two metal plates and housed in a package
When a crystal is placed across an ac source, it starts vibrating.
The amount of vibration depends upon the frequency of the applied
voltage
The frequency at which the crystal vibrations reach its max. value is
called the resonant frequency of the crystal
Quartz crystals are available with resonant frequencies ranging from
15 KHz to 10 MHz
Electrical equivalent circuit of a quartz crystal
The electrical equivalent circuit consists of a series R1-L1-C1 circuit in
parallel with a capacitance C2
When the crystal mounted across the ac source is not vibrating, it is
equivalent to the capacitance C2
When the crystal is vibrating, it acts like a tuned circuit R-L-C
The crystal has two closely spaced resonant frequencies
The first one is series resonant frequency(fs), which occurs when
reactance of the inductance L is equal to the when reactance of the
capacitance
The impedance of the equivalent circuit is equal to the resistance R
and the frequency of oscillation is given by the relation
The second one is parallel resonant frequency(fp), which occurs
when the reactance R-L-C1 branch is equal to the when reactance of
the capacitor C2
At this frequency, the crystal offers a very high impedance to the
external circuit and the frequency of oscillation is given by the
relation
Where
Crystal Controlled Oscillator
Crystal Controlled
Oscillator
The circuit is adjusted to have a frequency nearabout the desired operating
frequency but the exact frequency is set by the crystal and stabilized by the
crystal.
Capacitor C1 by-passes R3 in order to maintain large gain.
RFC coil L1 prevents ac signals from entering dc line whereas RC is the required
dc load of the collector.
The coupling capacitor C2 has negligible impedance at the operating frequency
but prevents any dc link between collector and base.
Due to extreme stability of crystal oscillations, such oscillators are widely used in
communication transmitters and receivers where frequency stability is of prime
importance.
LC oscillators
Also known as Tuned circuit oscillators , resonant
ocillators or tank circuit oscillators or RF oscillators
Produce an output with frequencies ranging from 1 MHz
to 500 MHz
Hartley oscillator, Colpitts oscillator and Clapp oscillator
are LC oscillators
Essential components of LC oscillator
The essential components of a feedback LC oscillator are :
1. A resonator which consists of an LC circuit. It is also known
as frequency- determining network (FDN)or tank circuit.
2. An amplifier whose function is to amplify the oscillations
produced by the resonator
3. A positive feedback network (PFN) whose function is to
transfer part of the output energy to the resonant LC circuit in
proper phase. The amount of energy fed back is sufficient to
meet I2R losses in the LC circuit.
Hartley oscillator
It uses a single tapped-coil having two parts marked L1 and L2 and a
transistor in CE configuration
One side of L2 is connected to base of a transistor in CE configuration via
C1 and the other to its emitter via ground and C3. Similarly, one end of L1 is
connected to collector via C2 and the other to common emitter terminal via
C3.
In other words, L1 is in the output circuit i.e. collector-emitter circuit whereas
L2 is in the base-emitter circuit i.e. input circuit. These two parts are
inductively-coupled and form an auto-transformer or a split-tank inductor.
Feedback between the output and input circuits is accomplished
through autotransformer action which also introduces a phase
reversal of 180°.
This phase reversal between two voltages occurs because they are
taken from opposite ends of an inductor (L1 - L2 combination)
Since transistor itself introduces a phase shift of 180°, the total
phase shift becomes 360° thereby making the feedback positive
or regenerative which is essential for oscillations .
Positive feedback is obtained from the tank circuit and is coupled
to the base via C1.
The feedback factor is given by the ratio of turns in L2 and L1 i.e.
by N2/ N1 and its value ranges from 0.1 to 0.5.
Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider for providing the base
bias and R3 is an emitter swamping resistor to add stability to the
circuit.
Capacitor C3 provides ac ground thereby preventing any signal
degeneration while still providing temperature stabilization.
Radio-frequency choke (RFC) provides dc load for the collector
and also keeps ac currents out of the dc supply VCC.
When VCC is first switched on through S, an initial bias is
established by R1 - R2 and oscillations are produced because of
positive feedback from the LC tank circuit (L1 and L2 constitute L).
The frequency of oscillation is given by
where L = L1 + L2 + 2M
The output from the tank may be taken out by means of another
coil coupled either to L1 or L2.
Colpitts Oscillator
Colpitts oscillator uses tapped capacitance whereas Hartley
oscillator uses tapped inductance
The two series capacitors C1 and C2 form the voltage divider
used for providing the feedback voltage (the voltage drop
across C2 constitutes the feedback voltage).
The tank circuit consists of two ganged capacitors C1 and C2
and a single fixed coil.
The frequency of oscillation (which does not depend on
mutual inductance) is given by
where
Transistor itself produces a phase shift of 180°. Another phase shift of
180° is provided by the capacitive feedback thus giving a total phase
shift of 360° between the emitter-base and collector base circuits.
Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider across VCC for providing
base bias, R3 is for emitter stabilisation and RFC provides the
necessary dc load resistance RC for amplifier action. It also prevents ac
signal from entering supply dc VCC.
C5 is a bypass capacitor whereas C6 conveys feedback from the
collector-to-base circuit.
When S is closed, a sudden surge of collector current shock-excites the
tank circuit into oscillations which are sustained by the feedback and
the amplifying action of the transistor.
Colpitts oscillator is widely used in commercial signal generators upto
1 MHz.
Frequency of oscillation is varied by gang-tuning the two capacitors
C1 and C2.
Clapp Oscillator
It differs from Colpitts oscillator in respect of capacitor C3 only which is
joined in series with the tank inductor.
Addition of C3 improves frequency stability and eliminates the effect of
transistor’s parameters on the operation of the circuit.
The operation of this circuit is the same as that of the Colpitts oscillator.
The frequency of oscillation is given by
where + +
Clapp Oscillator
RC Phase shift oscillator
Phase shift oscillator which uses a three-section RC feedback network for producing a
total phase shift of 180° (i.e. 60° per section) in the signal fed back to the base. Since
CE amplifier produces a phase reversal of the input signal, total phase shift becomes
360° or 0° which is essential for regeneration and hence for sustained oscillations.
Values of R and C are so selected that each RC section produces a phase advance of
60°. Addition of a fourth section improves oscillator stability.
It is found that phase shift of 180°occurs only at one frequency which becomes the
oscillator frequency.
Circuit Action
The circuit is set into oscillations by any random or chance variation caused in the base current
by
(i) noise inherent in a transistor or
(ii) minor variation in the voltage of the dc source.
This variation in the base current
1. is amplified in the collector circuit,
2. is then fed back to the RC network R1C1, R2C2 and R3C3,
3. is reversed in phase by the RC network,
4. is next applied to the base in phase with initial change in base current,
5. and hence is used to sustain cycles of variations in collector current
Obviously, the circuit will stop oscillating the moment phase shift differs from 180°.
As is the case with transistor circuits (i) voltage divider R5 - R3 provides dc emitter-base bias,
(ii) R6 controls collector voltage and (iii) R4, C4 provide temperature stability and prevent ac
signal degeneration.
The oscillator output voltage is capacitively coupled to the load by C5.
Frequency of Oscillation
The frequency of oscillation for the three-section RC oscillator when the
three R and C components are equal is roughly given by
Moreover, it is found that value of is 1/ 29. It means that amplifier gain
must be more than 29 for oscillator operation
Advantages and Disadvantages
1. Since they do not require any bulky and expensive high-value inductors,
such oscillators are well-suited for frequencies below 10 kHz.
2. Since only one frequency can fulfil Barkhausen phase-shift requirement,
positive feedback occurs only for one frequency. Hence, pure sine wave
output is possible.
3. It is not suited to variable frequency usage because a large number of
capacitors will have to be varied. Moreover, gain adjustment would be
necessary every time frequency change is made.
4. It produces a distortion level of nearly 5% in the output signal.
5. It necessitates the use of a high transistor to overcome losses in the
network.
Wien Bridge Oscillator
This oscillator uses two CE-connected RC coupled transistor
amplifiers and one RC-bridge (called Wien bridge) network
to provide feedback.
Q1 serves as amplifier-oscillator and Q2 provides phase
reversal and additional amplification.
The bridge circuit is used to control the phase of the
feedback signal at Q1.
Phase Shift Principle
Any input signal at the base of Q1 appears in the amplified
but phase-reversed form across collector resistor R6
It is further inverted by Q2 in order to provide a total phase
reversal of 360° for positive feedback.
Obviously, the signal at R10 is an amplified replica of the
input signal at Q1 and is of the same phase since it has been
inverted twice.
We could feed this signal back to the base of Q1
directly to provide regeneration needed for oscillator
operation. But because Q1 will amplify signals over a
wide range of frequencies, direct coupling would
result in poor frequency stability.
By adding the Wien bridge, oscillator becomes
sensitive to a signal of only one particular
frequency. Hence, we get an oscillator of good
frequency
Bridge Circuit Principle
It is found that the Wien bridge would become balanced at the signal frequency for which
phase shift is exactly 0° (or 360°).
The balance conditions are
(c) Circuit Action
Any random change in base current of Q1 can start
oscillations. Suppose, the base current of Q1 is
increased due to some reason. It is equivalent to
applying a positive going signal to Q1.
Following sequence of events will take place :
1. An amplified but phase-reversed signal will appear at
the collector of Q1;
2. A still further amplified and twice phase-reversed
signal will appear at the collector of Q2. Having been
inverted twice, this output signal will be in phase with the
input signal at Q1;
3. A part of the output signal at Q2 is fed back to the input
points of the bridge circuit (point A-C). A part of this feedback
signal is applied to emitter resistor R3 where it produces
degenerative effect. Similarly, a part of the feedback signal is
applied across base-bias resistor R2 where it produces
regenerative effect.
At the rated frequency fo, effect of regeneration is made slightly more than
that of degeneration in order to maintain continuous oscillations.
By replacing R3 with a thermistor, amplitude stability of the oscillator output
voltage can be increased
Advantages
1. highly stabilized amplitude and voltage amplification,
2. exceedingly good sine wave output,
3. good frequency stability.
Nonsinusoidal Oscillators
Non-sinusoidal Oscillators
Those oscillators which generate waveforms other than sine waveform are called non-
sinusoidal oscillators or relaxation oscillators.
A relaxation oscillator may be defined as a circuit in which voltage or current
changes abruptly from one value to another and which continues to oscillate between
these two values as long as dc power is supplied to it.
Non-sinusoidal waveforms include: square, rectangular, sawtooth and pulse-shaped
waves
Three types of such oscillators :
1. Sawtooth generators
2. Blocking oscillators
3. Multivibrators (MV)
Multivibrators (MV)
These devices are very useful as pulse generating, storing and counting circuits.
They are basically two-stage amplifiers with positive feedback from the
output of one amplifier to the input of the other.
This feedback is supplied in such a manner that one transistor is driven to
saturation and the other to cut-off.
It is followed by new set of conditions in which the saturated transistor is driven
to cut-off and the cut-off transistor is driven to saturation.
There are three basic types of MVs distinguished by the type of coupling
network employed.
1. astable multivibrator (AMV),
2. monostable multivibrator (MMV),
3. bistable multivibrator (BMV).
The first one is the non-driven type whereas the other two are the driven type
(also called triggered oscillators).
Uses of Multivibrators
1. as frequency dividers,
2. as sawtooth generators,
3. as square wave and pulse generators,
4. as a standard frequency source when synchronized by an external crystal
oscillator,
5. for many specialized uses in radar and TV circuits,
6. as memory elements in computers.
Astable Multivibrator (AMV)
It is also called free-running relaxation oscillator.
It has no stable state but only two quasistable (half-stable) states between which
it keeps oscillating continuously of its own accord without any external
excitation.
In this circuit, neither of the two transistors reaches a stable state. When one is
ON, the other is OFF and they continuously switch back and forth at a rate
depending on the RC time constant in the circuit. Hence, it oscillates and
produces pulses of certain mark-to-space ratio.
Two output(180° out of phase with each other) are available.
It has two energy-storing elements i.e. two capacitors
Astable Multivibrator (AMV)
It consists of two CE amplifier stages, each providing a
feedback to the other.
The feedback ratio is unity and positive because of 180°
phase shift in each stage. Hence, the circuit oscillates.
Because of the very strong feedback signal, the transistors
are driven either to saturation or to cut-off (they do not
work on the linear region of their characteristics).
The transistor Q1 is forward-biased by VCC and R1 whereas Q2
is forward-biased by VCC and R2.
The collector-emitter voltages of Q1 and Q2 are determined
respectively by RL1 and RL2 together with VCC.
The output of Q1 is coupled to the input of Q2 by C2 whereas
output of Q2 is coupled to Q1 by C1.
The output can be taken either from point A or B though these
would be phase-reversed with respect to each other
Circuit Operation
When the power is switched on by closing S, one of the transistors will
start conducting before the other does (or slightly faster than the other). It
is so because characteristics of no two seemingly similar transistors can
be exactly alike.
Suppose that Q1 starts conducting before Q2 does. The feedback system
is such that Q1 will be very rapidly driven to saturation and Q2 to cut-off.
The following sequence of events will occur :
1. Since Q1 is in saturation, whole of VCC drops across RL 1. Hence,
VC1 = 0 and point A is atzero or ground potential.
2. Since Q2 is in cut-off i.e. it conducts no current, there is no drop
across R L2. Hence, point B is at VCC.
3. Since A is at 0 V, C2 starts to charge through R2 towards VCC.
4. When voltage across C2 rises sufficiently (i.e. more than 0.7 V), it
biases Q2 in the forward direction so that it starts conducting and is soon
driven to saturation.
5. VC2 decreases and becomes almost zero when Q2 gets saturated.
The potential of point B decreases from VCC to almost 0 V. This
potential decrease (negative swing) is applied to the base of Q1
through C1. Consequently, Q1 is pulled out of saturation and is soon
driven tocut-off.
6. Since, now, point B is at 0 V, C1 starts charging through R1 towards
the target voltage VCC.
7. When voltage of C1 increases sufficiently, Q1 becomes forward-
biased and starts conducting.
In this way, the whole cycle is repeated.
It is seen that the circuit alternates between a state in which Q1 is ON
and Q2 is OFF and a state in which Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON. The time
in each state depends on RC values. Since each transistor is driven
alternately into saturation and cut-off the voltage waveform at either
collector is essentially a square waveform with a peak amplitude
equal to VCC
Switching Times
Off-time for Q1 is T1 = 0.69 R1C1
and that for Q2 is T2 = 0.69 R2C2.
Hence, total time-period of the wave is
T = T1 + T2= 0.69 (R1C1 + R2
C2 )
If R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C i.e. the two stages are
symmetrical, then T = 1.38 RC
Duty cycle = =
Frequency of Oscillation
It is given by the reciprocal of time period,
Minimum Values of
To ensure oscillations, the transistors must saturate for which minimum
values of are as under :
and
If = = R and = = then
Monostable Multivibrator (MMV)
It is also called a single-shot or single swing or a one-shot multivibrator. Other names
are : delay multivibrator and univibrator.
It has one absolutely stable (stand-by) state and one quasistable state.
It can be switched to the quasi-stable state by an external trigger pulse but it returns to
the stable condition after a time delay determined by the value of circuit components.
It supplies a single output pulse of a desired duration for every input trigger pulse.
It has one energy-storing element i.e. one-capacitor.
Monostable Multivibrator (MMV)
Initial Condition
In the absence of a triggering pulse at C2 and with S
closed,
1. VCC provides reverse bias for C/B junction of Q1 but
provides forward-bias for E/B junction of Q2. Hence,
Q2 conducts at saturation.
2. VBB and R3 reverse bias Q1 and keep it cut off.
3. C1 charges to nearly VCC through RL1 to ground by
the low-resistance path provided by saturated Q2.
The initial stable state is represented by (i) Q2
conducting at saturation and (ii) Q1 cut-off.
When Trigger Pulse is Applied
When a trigger pulse is applied to Q1 through C2, MMV will switch to its
opposite unstable state where Q2 is cut-off and Q1 conducts at saturation.
The chain of circuit actions is as under :
1. If positive trigger pulse is of sufficient amplitude, it will override the
reverse bias of the E/B junction of Q1 and give it a forward bias. Hence, Q1
will start conducting.
2. As Q1 conducts, its collector voltage falls due to voltage drop across RL1. It
means that potential of point A falls (negative-going signal). This negative-
going voltage is fed to Q2 via C1 where it decreases its forward bias.
3. As collector current of Q2 starts decreasing due to reduced forward bias,
potential of point B increases (positive-going signal) due to lesser drop over
RL2. Soon, Q2 comes out of conduction.
4. The positive-going signal at B is fed via R1 to the base of Q1 where it
increases its forward bias further. As Q1 conducts more, potential of point A
approaches 0 V.
5. This action is cumulative and ends with Q1 conducting at saturation and Q2
cut-off.
Return to Initial Stable State
1. As point A is at almost 0 V, C1 starts to discharge through
saturated Q1 to ground.
2. As C1 discharges, the negative potential at the base of Q2 is
decreased. As C1 discharges further, Q2 is pulled out of cut-off.
3. As Q2 conducts further, a negative-going signal from point B via
R1 drives Q1 into cut-off.
Hence, the circuit reverts to its original state with Q2 conducting at
saturation and Q1 cut-off. It remains in this state till another trigger
pulse comes along when the entire cycle repeats itself.
The output is taken from the collector of Q2 though it can also be
taken from point A of Q1. The width of this pulse is determined by
the time constant of C1 R2. Since this MV produces one output
pulse for every input trigger pulse it receives, it is called mono or
one-shotmultivibrator.
The width or duration of the pulse is given by T = 0.69 C1R2
It is also known as the one-shot period.
Uses
1. The falling part of the output pulse from MMV is often used to trigger another pulse
generator circuit thus producing a pulse delayed by a time T with respect to the input
pulse.
2. MMV is used for regenerating or rejuvenating old and worn out pulses. Various
pulses used in computers and telecommunication systems become somewhat distorted
during use. An MMV can be used to generate new, clean and sharp pulses from these
distorted and used ones.
Bistable Multivibrator (BMV)
It has two absolutely stable states.
It can stay in one of its two states indefinitely (as long as power is supplied) changing
to the other state only when it receives a trigger pulse from outside.
When it receives another triggering pulse, only then it goes back to its original state.
Since one trigger pulse causes the MV to ‘flip’ from one state to another and the next
pulse causes it to ‘flop’ back to its original state, the BMV is also popularly known as
‘flip-flop’ circuit.
Bistable Multivibrator
Circuit Action
If Q1 is conducting, then the fact that point A is at nearly 0 V makes the base of Q2 negative (by
the potential divider R2 – R4) and holds Q2 off.
Similarly, with Q2 OFF, the potential divider from VCC to –VBB (RL2. R1, R3) is designed to keep
base of Q1 at about 0.7 V ensuring that Q1 conducts. It is seen that Q1 holds Q2 OFF and R3
holds Q1 ON.
Suppose, now, a positive pulse is applied momentarily to R, it will cause Q2 to conduct. As
collector of Q2 falls to zero, it cuts Q1 OFF and, consequently, the BMV switches over to its
other state
Similarly, a positive trigger pulse applied to S will switch the BMV back to its original state.
Uses
1. in timing circuits as a frequency divider,
2. in counting circuits,
3. in computer memory circuits.
555 timer
The 555 timer is a very popular IC in electronic industry and can be
used in astable multivibrator mode as well as monostable
multivibrator mode.
It uses two comparators A and B , an RS flip flop ,an output buffer and
three resistors of 5k (hence the name)
The comparators are devices whose output are +5 V when the
voltage on the positive (+) input is greater than the voltage on the
negative (-) input and 0 V when the negative (-) input is greater than
the voltage on the positive(+) input.
Functional block diagram of 555
The voltage divider consisting of 5k resistors provides a
trigger level of 1/3 VCC and a threshold level of 2/3 VCC
The control voltage input ( pin 5) can be used to
externally adjust the trigger and threshold levels to other
values if necessary.
When the trigger input (normally at +5V) momentarily
goes below 1/3 VCC , the output of comparator B switches
from 0 V to 5V and sets the S-R latch, causing the output
(pin 3) to go +5V and turning the discharge transistor Q1
off. The output will stay at +5V until the threshold input
(normally at 0 V) goes above 2/3 VCC and causes output of
comparator A to switch from 0V to +5 V. This resets the
latch causing the output to go back to 0V and turning the
discharge transistor ‘ON’ .
The external reset input can be used to reset the latch
independent of the threshold input.
The trigger and threshold inputs(pins 2 and 6) are
controlled by external components connected to produce
either monostable or astable action.
Monostable operation of 555 timer
To set up 555 as a monostable
multivibrator external resistor R1
and capacitor C1 are used
The pulse width of the output is
given by the equation
tp = 1.1 R1C1
The control voltage input is not used
and is connected to a decoupling
capacitor C2 to prevent noise from
affecting the trigger and threshold
levels.
When a negative going trigger pulse is applied ,
Before a trigger pulse is applied , the output is the output goes to +5 V and the discharge
0 V and the discharge transistor Q1 is ON, transistor turns OFF, allowing C1 to charge
keeping C1 discharged through R1
When C1 charges to 2/3 VCC the output
goes back to 0V turns ON immediately
discharging C1
The charging rate of C1 determines how
long the output remains at +5V level
Astable operation of 555 timer
The threshold input (pin 6) is not connected
to the trigger input (pin 2)
The external components R1, R2 and C1
form the tuning network that sets the
frequency of oscillation.
The 0.01 uF capacitor, C2 connected to the
control ( pin 5) input is strictly for
decoupling and has no effect on the circuit,
operation
Initially when power is turned ON,
the capacitor C1 is uncharged and
thus the trigger voltage (pin 2 ) is at
0 v.
this causes the output of
comparator B to be at +5 V and the
output of comparator A to be at 0V
forcing the output of the latch and
the base of Q1 to be at 0 V
The transistor Q1 is OFF
Now C1 begins charging through R1
and R2
When the capacitor voltage reaches 1/3 VCC ,
comparator B switches to its 0 output state and
when the capacitor reaches 2/3 VCC,
comparator A switches to its +5V state .
This resets the latch causing the base of Q1 to
go to +5V. As a result Q1 turns ON. This
sequence creates a discharging path for the
capacitor through R2 and the transistor.
The capacitor now begins to discharge causing
comparator A to go to 0V .
At the point when capacitor discharges down to
1/3 VCC, comparator B switches to its 5V level.
This sets the latch , making the base of Q1 to go
down to 0V.
As a result Q1 turns OFF. Another charging cycle
begins and the entire process repeats. This
produces a rectangular wave output whose duty
cycle depends on the values of R1 and R2
The frequency of oscillator of a 555 timer in astable mode is given by
By selecting R1 and R2 duty cycle can be adjusted
Since C1 charges through R1 + R2 and discharges through R2, duty
cycle nearly equal to 50% can be achieved of R2 >>R1 so that
charging and discharging times are approximately equal
T = 0.69 C1