Memory Devices and Display system

Memory Devices: Introduction, Basic concepts of electronic memory, History of

organic/polymer electronic memory devices, Classification of electronic memory
devices, types of organic memory devices (organic molecules, polymeric
materials, organic inorganic hybrid materials).
Display system: Photo active and electro active materials, Nanomaterials and
organic
materials used in optoelectronic devices. Liquid crystals (LC’s) - Introduction,
classification, properties and application in Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD’s).
Properties and application of Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s) and
Quantum Light Emitting Diodes (QLED’s), Light emitting electrochemical cells
Introduction to Memory Devices:
Definition: An electronic memory device is a form of semiconductor
storage which is fast in response and compact in size, and can be read
and written when coupled with a central processing unit.
Basic Concepts of Electronic Memory
The basic goal of a memory device is to provide a means for storing
and accessing binary digital data sequences of “1’s” and “0’s”, as
one of the core functions (primary storage) of modern computers.
An electronic memory device is a form of semiconductor storage
which is fast in response and compact in size, and can be read and
written when coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a
processor).
Data storage technologies consists of ferroelectric random access
memory (FeRAM), magnetoresistive random access memory
(MRAM), phase change memory (PCM), and organic/polymer
memory have appeared on the scene of the information technology
industry.
In conventional silicon-based electronic memory, data are stored
based on the amount of charge stored in the memory cells.
Organic/polymer electronic memory stores data in an entirely
different way, for instance, based on different electrical
conductivity states (ON and OFF states) in response to an applied
electric field. This types of memory is likely to be an alternative or
at least a supplementary technology to conventional semiconductor
electronic memory.
The advantages of organic and polymer electronic memory
include good process ability, molecular design through chemical
synthesis, simplicity of device structure, miniaturized
dimensions, good scalability, low-cost potential, low-power
operation, multiple state properties, 3D stacking capability and
large capacity for data storage.
The new technologies are based on electrical bistability of
materials arising from changes in certain intrinsic properties,
such as magnetism, polarity, phase, conformation and
conductivity, in response to the applied electric field.
History of Organic/Polymer Electronic Memory Devices:
 During 1968-70, bistable electrical conductivity and
resistivity phenomenon was observed in pb/polydivinyl
benzene, tetracene, phthalocyanines and polystyrene polymer
materials. All these materials showed bistable switching and
memory switching effects. But, the performance was not
satisfactory for practical application.
 During the same period, controlled polymer chain ordering
and disordering with respect to electric field was discovered
in polymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene, polymethyl
methacrylate and poly butyl methacrylate polymer films.
 In 1980's, two stable ferroelectric polymerization states
were discovered in polymers. Thin films of ferroelectric
polymer materials can be repeatedly switched between two
stables and are capable of exhibiting non-volatile memory
effects. but they required a very high operating voltage of
30V.
 In 1995, ferroelectric polymer films as thin as 1 nm were
fabricated. These required just 1V to switch between two
states. Since then, polymer ferroelectric random access
memory(FeRAM) was developed as a promising memory
technology.
 In 2001, an organic field-effect transistor (OFETs)
memory device was demonstrated using an oligomer as
conductor and ferroelectric organic polymer material as a gate
insulator
 In 2003, a WORM type memory device was developed
consisting of a thin film p-i-n silicon diode and a mixture of
two conductive polymers poly(ethylene dioxythiophene) and
polystyrene sulfonic acid.
 In 2004, ultra thin film organic materials were discovered
with multilevel conductivity states.
 In 2005, multilevel conductance switching films with a
continuum of conductance states was reported in TTO device
Classification of electronic memories:
1. Volatile memory: Loses the stored information
unless it is provided with a constant power supply.
a. RAM: Stored information to be periodically read
and rewritten, otherwise the data will be lost.
❖ Dynamic RAM: Stores each bit of data in a
separate capacitor within an integrated circuit.
❖ Static RAM: It exhibits data remanence, but still
stored data is eventually lost when the memory
remains in the power-off state.
2. Non-volatile memory: Retain its data when its power
supply is switched off.
a. ROM: Data is physically and coded in the circuit and
cannot be programmed after fabrication.
❖ WORM: Write once, read many times. Example: CD,
DVD
❖ EPROM: Erasable programmable read only memory.
b. Hybrid: It allows data to be read and re-written at any
time.
❖ Flash: Its stored data can be reprogrammed and it has the
ability to write, read, erase and retain the stored data.
❖ EEPROM: Electrical erasable Programmable ROM.
Classification of electronic memory devices
• According to the device structure, electronic memory
devices can be divided into three primary categories:
• Transistors
• Capacitors
• Resistors and
• Charge transfer
With their respective ability to amplify electronic signals,
to store charges, and to produce proportional electric
currents, electronic memory devices can be constructed from
Transistor – type electronic memory device
 Transistors are made from silicon, a semiconductor. It is converted to p-type and
n-type semiconductor by doping trivalent and pentavalent impurities. Transistors
are made using p-type and n-type semiconductor.
 A transistor is a miniature electronic component that can work either as an
amplifier or a switch.
 A computer memory chip consists of billions of transistors; each transistor is
working as a switch, which can be switched ON or OFF.
 Each transistor can be in two different states and store two different
numbers, ZERO and ONE. Since chip is made of billions of such transistors
and can store billions of Zeros and ones, and almost every number and letter
can be stored.
 Inorganic transistors are widely used in conventional semiconductor
memory. It is composed of three main components: source, drain and
gate electrodes, a dielectric insulator layer and an active semiconductor
layer for amplification of electronic signal
 Organic (including polymer) transistors are also of great potential for
memory applications Organic field-effect transistor (OFET)
 In addition, the mechanical flexibility of organic materials makes them
compatible with plastic substrates for lightweight and flexible device
design.
 In comparison to the semiconductor memory device, an organic resistive
memory device stores data based on 2 conductivity states. The “low
conductivity state” and “high conductivity state” are assigned 0 and 1
respectively.
2. Capacitor - type electronic memory device
A capacitor consists of two metal plates which are capable of storing an
electric charge. It is used to store data. It is like a battery that holds data
based on energy. If the capacitor is charged, it holds the binary numeral,
“1” and holds “0” when the cell is discharged.
If the parallel plates of a capacitor are separated by
dielectric layer, charges dissipate slowly and
memory would be volatile. On the other hand, if the
medium between the electrodes is ferroelectric in
nature, can maintain permanent electric polarization
that can be repeatedly switched between two stable
states (bistable) by an external electric field. Thus,
memory based on ferroelectric capacitors (FeRAM)
is nonvolatile memory.
3. Resistor - type electronic memory device
 Devices incorporating switchable resistive materials are generically
classified as resistor-type memory, or resistive random access
memory (RRAM).
 Resistor-type electronic memory usually has a simple structure,
having a metal-insulator-metal structure generally referred to as
MIM structure.
 The structure comprises of an insulating layer (I)
sandwiched between the two metal (M) electrodes
and supported on a substrate (glass, silicon wafer,
plastic or metal foil).
 Resistor-type memory devices store data in an entirely different form, for
instance, based on different electrical conductivity states (ON and OFF states).
Initially, the device is under high resistance state or “OFF” and logically
“0”state, when resistance changed or under external applied field changes to low
resistance state or “ON” logical value “1”.
 Unlike transistor and capacitor memory devices, resistor-type memory does
not require a specific cell structure (e.g. FET) or to be integrated with the
CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) technology.
 Electrical bistability usually arises from changes in the intrinsic properties of
materials, such as charge transfer, phase change, conformation change and
reduction–oxidation (redox) reaction, in response to an applied voltage or
electric field.
Charge transfer:
This type of memory device is based on the charge transfer effects of a charge
transfer complex.
 A charge transfer complex consists of two parts, one electron donor and
other an electron acceptor, it is also called donor-acceptor (D-A) complex.
 In this complex, a partial transfer of charges occurs from the donor part to
the accepter part. This results in a difference in conductivity.
 It exhibits bistable states due to differences in conductivity. This behavior
is used to design molecular electronic devices.
 A charge transfer (CT) complex is defined as an electron donor– acceptor
(D–A) complex, characterized by an electronic transition to an excited state
in which a partial transfer of charge occurs from the donor moiety to the
acceptor moiety. The conductivity of a CT complex is dependent on the
ionic binding between the D–A components.
Types of organic memory devices
Organic memory device stores data based on different electrical
conductivity states (ON and OFF states) in response to an applied
electric field.
There are three types of organic memory devices
1. Organic molecular memory devices
2. Polymeric molecules
3. Organic-Inorganic hybrid materials
Molecular memory devices: If organic molecular material used to store
the data is called organic–based memory device. Organic electronic
memory devices based on organic molecules were first reported in
several acene derivatives including naphthalene, anthracene, tetracene,
pentacene, perylene, p-quarterphenyl and p-quinquephenyl.
Organic-Based Electronic Memory Devices
Organic Molecules:
 Organic electronic memory devices based on organic molecules were first reported in several
acene derivatives including naphthalene, anthracene, tetracene, pentacene, perylene kind of
molecules. Subsequently, the effect of different D–A structures on the electronic switching
properties of triphenylamine-based molecules is of great interest.
 Device consists of organic molecule embedded between ITO and Ag electrodes.
 The device exhibited reproducible negative differential resistance (NDR) and can be
electrically switched between the ON state and the OFF state.
 Organometallic and all-organic CT complexes have been explored for use in organic memory.
Organic molecules
Acene derivatives: Acene are the polycyclic aromatic compounds consisting of
linearly fused benzene rings. They have high charge carrier mobility. Examples
for acenes are pentacene, perfluoropentane, naphthalene, anthracene, tetracene etc.
★Organic molecule with π conjugated system

benzene naphthalene

anthracene tetracene

pentacene
Types of Organic-Based Electronic Memory Devices
Organic Molecules:
 Organic electronic memory devices based on organic molecules were first
reported in several acene derivatives including naphthalene, anthracene, tetracene,
pentacene, perylene kind of molecules. Subsequently, the effect of different D–A
structures on the electronic switching properties of triphenylamine-based
molecules is of great interest.
 Device consists of organic molecule embedded between ITO and Ag electrodes.
 The device exhibited reproducible negative differential resistance (NDR) and can
be electrically switched between the ON state and the OFF state.
 Organometallic and all-organic CT complexes have been explored for use in
organic memory.
Pentacene is a linearly fused aromatic compound with five benzene rings. It can be
obtained in crystal and thin film form. It exhibits a very
good hole mobility and hence it behaves as a p-type organic semiconductor.

pentacene

The p-Type Organic Semiconductor Material “Pentacene”

An Organic molecule with π conjugated system and possesses holes as major charge
carrier is called p-type semiconductor. Ex: Pentacene
 These molecules show bistable states when external field is applied i.e. ON and
OFF state.
 its high charge carrier mobility
 It is widely used in organic thin-film transistors (OTFTs) and other electronic
devices.
“Perfluoropentacene”
 When all the hydrogen atoms of pentacene are replaced
by fluorine atoms the resulting molecule is perfluoropentane.
 Strong electron withdrawing nature of fluorine atoms
converts this molecule into n-type semiconductor.
 Both the molecules exhibit same structure as well as
crystal packing but former behaves as p-type semiconductor
and latter has an n-type semiconductor.
 Therefore, these molecules together exhibit charge-
transfer processes that are useful for memory applications.
The n-type organic semiconducting material Perfluoropentacene
When all the hydrogen atom of pentacene is replaced by Fluorine atoms,
it formed Perfluoropentacene. Basically Fluorine is electron withdrawing
nature. Hence it convers this molecules into n-type semiconductor.
Polymer molecules: There are polymers which exhibit memory
affect and are used in electronic memory devices.
★ Polyimides (PIs): PIs are one of the most commonly used
polymeric materials for organic electrical memory applications.
They have high thermal ability and mechanical strength and can
be easily processed from solution.
In functional PIs, phthalimide acts as the electron acceptor and
triphenylamine acts as an electron donor to form a Donor-Acceptor
structure. They exhibit two stable charge states under the applied
electric field. These states arise due to transfer of electrons from
donor to acceptor. This bistability is used to store data in memory
devices.
Polymeric Molecules
Polymer used for organic memory device is Polyimide (PI) with Donor-
Triphenylamine and Acceptor- phthalimide.
This polymer has high thermal stability and mechanical strength. The donors and
acceptors of PIs contribute to the electronic transition based on an induced charge
transfer (CT) effect under an applied electric field.
Polymeric Materials:
 Polymeric materials have advantage over the small organic molecules due its
good solution process ability, high thermal stability and mechanical strength.
 The molecular structure of polymeric materials can be tailored using electron
donors and acceptors of different strengths, spacer moieties and functional group
to induce different switching behaviors for electronic memory applications.
 In D–A structured polymer of phthalimide as the electron acceptor, and
triphenylamine as electron donors can be used as electrical memory applications.
 A charge transfer (CT) complex is defined as an electron donor–acceptor (D–A)
complex, characterized by an electronic transition to an excited state in which a
partial transfer of charge occurs from the donor moiety to the acceptor moiety.
 An electric field-induced CT state can be formed, which is the main mechanism
responsible for the memory behaviour. The Al/polymer/ITO device exhibits
dynamic random access memory (DRAM) behaviour with an ON/OFF current.
3. Organic inorganic hybrid materials
Organic-inorganic hybrid materials are composed of organic layers containing
inorganic materials. Inorganic materials used are allotropes of carbon like fullerenes,
carbon nanotubes, graphene and metal nanoparticles, semiconductor nanoparticles and
inorganic Quantum Dots (QDs).
★ organic-carbon allotrope hybrid materials: Polymers containing electron donors
such as thiophene, fluorine, carbazole and aniline derivatives can be combined with
fullerene to obtain a charge transfer hybrid material with donor-acceptor ability and
electrical bistable states.
Fullerenes exhibit high electron-withdrawing ability and can capture upto 6 electrons.
So they are used in WORM memory effect devices.
★ Organic-Inorganic Nanocomposites: These are the hybrid electronic memory
device in which organic polymers with functional groups are clubbed with metal
nanoparticles, QDs. Example: Composite of 8-hydroxyquinoline containing polymers
with gold nanoparticles sandwiched between two metal electrodes.
Bistable electronic transition states are observed when an electric field is applied due to
charge transfer between the Au nanoparticles and 8-hydroxyquinoline.
 DISPLAY SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Digital displays are panel screens that present a variety of multimedia formats
to an audience. The advantages of digital displays are its ability to show a wide
range of these multimedia formats, like images and video, which catapult it to
become a superior mode of communication. Over the years, technological
advancements have caused digital displays to grow in output quality and reduce in
price is a key factor for the growth in their adoption.
A display includes multiple layers of material that together provide the structure
necessary to render an image onto the screen. The exact components depend on the
underlying display technology. Displays, used in conjunction with devices such as
keyboards and track pads, allow users to interface with a computer and view
stored, generated or transmitted data in the form of text and graphics.
Display: Display is an output device used to present visual information“
Display system: A system through which information is conveyed to people
through visual means."

The display systems consists of Photoactive and Electroactive

materials as the active materials which convert the electrical
energy into to light emission.
Photoactive material: Materials that changes its properties when
exposed to light, often in the ultraviolet or visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Example: conducting polymers such as
polythiophene, polypyrole and nanomaterials such as TiO 2, ZnS etc.
Electroactive materials: An electroactive material exhibits a change
in size or shape when stimulated by an electric field. Example:
polyacetylene, Barium Titanate, Potassium Niobate etc.
 PHOTOACTIVE AND ELECTRO ACTIVE ORGANIC
MATERIALS
"Organic semiconductors used in electronic and optoelectronic
devices are called as electro active and photoactive materials".
Photoactive and electro active organic materials are the semiconductors
composed of Л-electron systems.
Working principle of photoactive and electro active
materials:
Photoactive and electroactive material absorb and emit light in the UV
to IR region.
Display system (OLED) consisting of photoactive and electro active
material absorb light and allows an electron to jump from HOMO of a
Donor to LUMO of an Acceptor.
This phenomenon generates and transport charge carriers.
In an OLED device, the light-emitting layer is excited by the recombination
energy of electrons from the cathode and holes from the anode, and then the light-
emitting layer emits light when returning to the ground state. One of the
electrodes consists of transparent material in order to extract light from the light
emitting layer.
OPTOELECTRONICS
Optoelectronics is the communication between optics and electronics
which includes the study, design and manufacture of a hardware device
that convert electrical energy into light and light into energy through
semiconductors.
Optoelectronic devices: "A hardware device that converts electrical
energy into light and light into energy through semiconductors called
optoelectronic device". Optoelectronic devices are primarily transducers
i.e. they can convert one energy form to another. They can also detect
light and transform light signals to electrical signals for processing by a
computer. Ex: Optoelectronic devices include telecommunication laser
blue laser, optical fiber, LED traffic lights, photo diodes and solar cells.
Working principle of optoelectronic devices:
The principle used in optoelectronic devices is;
Optoelectronic devices are special type semiconductor devices that
are able to convert light energy to electrical energy or electrical
energy to light energy.
If the photon has energy larger than the energy gap, the photon
absorbs by the semiconductor, exciting an electron from the valence band
into the conduction band, where it is free to move. A free hole is left
behind in the valence band.
When the excited electron returns to valence band, extra photon energy
is emitted in the form a light.
Nano materials (Silicon Nanocrystals) for Optoelectronic
devices
Any substance in which at least one dimension is less than 100
nm is called nanomaterials.
The properties of nanomaterials are different from bulk materials
due to:
1. Quantum Confinement effect
2. Increased surface area to volume ratio
The improved electronic properties yielded for
nanostructured silicon in comparison to its bulk, which led to the
use of Silicon Nanocrystals in electronics and optoelectronics
fields.
Special properties of Silicon Nanocrystals for optoelectronics
1. Silicon Nanocrystal has wider band gap energy due to
quantum confinement.
2. SiNCs shows higher light emission property (Photoluminescence)
3. SiNCs exhibit a quantum yield of more than 60%.
4. Si-NCs exhibit tunable electronic structure
5. Larger surface area - volume ratio
Applications:
1. SiNCs are used in neuromorphic computing and down –
shifting in photovoltaics
2. SiNCs are used in the construction of novel solar cells, photo
detectors and optoelectronic synaptic devices.
Organic materials for Optoelectronic devices [Light absorbing
materials –Polythiophenes] (P3HT)
 Polythiophenes are an important class of conjugated polymers,
environmentally and thermally stable material.
 Chemical structure of P3HT (Poly(3-hexylthiophene)) is a
polymer with chemical formula (C10H14S)n.
 It is a polythiophene with a short
alkyl group on each repeat unit.
 Highly ordered (P3HT) are composed
of closely packed, p–p stacked
(p–p distance of 0.33nm) fully.
 extended chains which are oriented perpendicular to the substrate.
Applications:
 P3HT used in Photovoltaic devices.
 It can be used as a positive electrode in Lithium
batteries.
 Used in the construction of Organic Solar Cells.
 Manufacture of smart windows.
 Used in the fabrication of memory devices.
Properties:
1) P3HT is a semiconducting polymer with high stability and
exhibits conductivity due to holes therefore considered as p-
type semiconductor.
2) P3HT has great capability as light-absorbing materials in
organic electronic devices.
3) P3HT has a crystalline structure and good charge-transport
properties required for Optoelectronics.
4) P3HT has a direct-allowed optical transition with a
fundamental energy gap of 2.14eV.
5) P3HT indicates that an increase in the conductivity is
associated with an increase in the degree of crystallinity.
Light Emitting Material-Poly[9-vinylcarbazole]
(PVK)]
Poly (N-vinyl carbazole) (PVK) is one of the highly
processable polymers as hole conducting material and
therefore used as an efficient hole transport material to
prepare highly efficient and stable planar hetero junction
Perovskite solar cells.
Applications
PVK has been commonly used in OLEDs, light harvesting
applications, photo refractive polymer
composites and memory devices
Used in the fabrication of light- emitting diodes and laser
printers.
Used in the fabrication of organic solar cells.
Used in the fabrication of solar cells when combined with
Perovskite materials.
PVK-Perovskite junction is used in Light-Emitting Diodes
with Enhanced Efficiency and Stability
 LIQUID CRYSTALS
The liquid crystals are a unique state of matter between solid
(crystalline) and liquid (isotropic) phases.
Liquid crystals find application in the areas of science and
engineering, particularly in display systems of modern electronic
gadgets. Devices using liquid crystal displays have the advantage of low
power consumption and hence are widely used in display devices of
mobile communication appliances, aircraft cockpit, laptops and
related electronic equipment.
Classification of liquid crystals: Liquid crystals are classified into two
main categories, namely,
1. Thermotropic liquid crystals
2. Lyotropic liquid crystals
Thermotropic liquid crystals: A liquid crystal is said to be thermotropic
if molecules orientation is dependent on the temperature. At high
temperatures, liquid crystals become an isotropic liquid and at low
temperatures they tend to glassify. Ex:

Ethyl-p-azoxycinnamate 1400C Ethyl-p-azOxycinnamate

(Solid) (liquid crystals)
p-cholesteryl benzoate 1450C p-cholesteryl benzoate
(Solid) (liquid crystals)
Thermotropic liquid crystals may be further classified as:
1)Nematic liquid crystals 2)Smectic liquid crystals
3)Cholesteric liquid crystals
Nematic (or thread-like liquid crystals):
The molecules move either sideways or up and
down. Each molecule can also twist or rotate around its
axis giving rise to a twisted nematic.
Since the molecules are oriented in one direction,
they exhibit anisotropy.
In this case, the molecules are readily aligned in the
same direction in the presence of electric and
magnetic fields.
The alignment of molecules is temperature sensitive -
as the temperature is increased, the degree of
orientation of the nematic crystals decreases and they
change into isotropic liquids.
Ex: p-azoxyphenetole, anisaldazine, etc.,
2)Smectic (or soap-like liquid crystals):
 The molecules in smectic crystals are oriented parallel
to each other as in the nematic phase but in layers.
These layers can slide pass each other because the force
between the layers is weak.
They are denoted by alphabet letter A, B, C, etc
Some common types of smectic liquid crystals are given
below.
i. Smectic-A: The molecules are aligned perpendicular to the layer planes.
ii. Smectic-B; The director is perpendicular to the plane and molecules are
arranged in hexagonal order, it is called smectic B.
[Link]-C: The arrangement of molecules is similar to smectic-A except
that the molecules are slightly tilted. They have high viscosity and are not
suitable for devices.
3) Cholesteric liquid crystals:
This type of mesophase is formed by derivatives of
cholesterol such as cholesteryl esters.
The molecules in this type of crystal are also
parallel to each other but arranged in layers as
nematic phase.
The molecules in successive layers are slightly
twisted or rotated with respect to the layers above and
below so as to form a continuous helical or spiral
pattern.
Ex: Cholesteryl benzoate. Its transition temperature is
146 °C and melting point is 178.5 °C.
Lyotropic liquid crystals:
The orientation behavior of lyotropic crystals is a function of
concentration and solvent. These molecules are amphiphilic - they
have both hydrophilic or lyophilic (solvent loving) and hydrophobic or
lyophibic ends in their molecules.
The hydrophilic end is attracted towards water, whereas the
hydrophobic end is water repellent and attracted towards non-polar
solvents. At low concentrations, these molecules are randomly oriented
but as the concentration increases, the molecules start arranging
themselves.
Cell membranes and cell walls are the examples of lyotropic
liquid crystals. Soaps and detergents form lyotropic crystals when
they combine with water.
Properties of liquid crystals:
1. They exhibit optical anisotropy which is defined as the difference
between refractive index parallel to the director and refractive index
perpendicular to the director. These two properties are important for
the electro-optic effects in liquid crystals.
2. The intermolecular forces are rather weak and can be perturbed by
an applied electric field.
3. As the molecules are polar, interact with an electric field, which
causes them to change their orientation slightly.
4. Liquid crystal can flow like a liquid, due to loss of positional order.
5. Liquid crystal is optically birefringent, due to its orientation order.
6. Liquid crystals, like all other kinds of matter, exhibits thermal
expansion (Thermal Imaging).
Applications of liquid crystals: Liquid crystals have a wide range of
applications in various fields, including electronics, optics, displays, sensors
and medicine. Some of the major applications of liquid crystals are:
1. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs): The liquid crystal layer in LCDs allows
for the display of images and text through the use of electrical currents that
control the orientation of the crystals.
2. Sensors: Liquid crystal sensors are used in various applications such as
temperature sensing, humidity sensing, and chemical sensing.
3. Optical Devices: Liquid crystals are used in various optical devices such as
variable optical attenuators, phase shifters, and tunable filters. These devices
are used in optical communication systems, spectroscopy, and imaging.
4. Medicine: Liquid crystals have been used in drug delivery systems, where
the drug is encapsulated in the liquid crystal matrix and delivered to specific
target cells.
Application of LCs in the fabrication of Liquid Crystal
Displays (LCD's):
Construction of LCDs:
Application of LCs in the fabrication of Liquid Crystal Displays
(LCD's):
Construction of LCDs:
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display technology that
uses liquid crystals to produce images. LCDs are commonly used in
electronic devices such as televisions, computer monitors, and mobile
phones.
LCD consists of two polarized glass pieces, two electrodes, one is
positive and the other one is negative.
External potential is applied to LCD through this electrodes and it
is made up of indium-tin oxide.
 Liquid crystal layer of about 10m -20m is placed between two
electrodes.
 The light is passed or blocked by changing the polarization.
1. The working principle of an LCD is based on the optical properties of
liquid crystals and polarizing filters to create images.
2. An LCD consists of a layer of liquid crystal material sandwiched
between two transparent electrodes.
3. When an electric field is applied to the liquid crystal, it twists the
orientation of the liquid crystal molecules, which changes the polarization
of the light passing through the liquid crystal.
4. Polarizing filter is placed in front of and behind the liquid crystal layer
to control the orientation of the light passing through it.
5. The LCD also has a backlight, which shines light through the liquid
crystal layer to produce an image.
6. The LCD can display images in colour by using filters that absorb
different colours of light.
7. Each pixel of an LCD contains three sub-pixels that can produce red,
green, and blue colours. By adjusting the voltage applied to each sub-
pixel, the LCD can create millions of different colours.
8. For example, when the external bias is applied the molecular
arrangement is disturbed and that area looks dark and the other area
looks clear.
9. In the segment arrangement, the conducting segment looks dark and
the other segment looks clear. To display number 2, the segments A, B,
G, E and D, are energized.
ORGANIC LIGHT OLEDs EMITTING DIODES (OLED'S)
“Thin film devices consisting of a stack of organic layers sandwiched
between two electrodes. OLEDs operate by converting electrical
current into light via an organic emitter”.
Construction of OLED: An OLED diode is made of six different
layers with two of them retaining
Organic properties. When current
is passed through these diodes,
these organic layers produce light
Which passes through a colour
refiner that produce picture on the
screen. An OLED structure has;
1. Substrate (can be plastic, glass, or metal foil) - Foundation of the OLED.
2. Anode (may or may not be transparent depending on the type of OLED) Positively
charged to inject holes (absence of electrons) into the organic layers that make up the
OLED device.
3. Hole Injection Layer (HIL) Deposited on top of the anode this layer receives holes
from the anode and injects them deeper into the device.
4. Hole Transport Layer (HTL)This layer supports the transport of holes across it so
they can reach the emissive layer.
5. Emissive Layer -The heart of the device and where light is made, the emissive layer
consists of a color defining emitter doped into a host. This is the layer where the electrical
energy is directly converted into light.
6. Blocking layer (BL) -Commonly used to improve OLED technology by confining
electrons (charge carriers) to the emissive layer.
7. Electron Transport Layer (ETL) - Supports the transport of clectrons across it so they
can reach the emissive layer.
8. Cathode (may or may not be transparent depending on thc type of OLED) Negatively
charged to inject electrons into the organic layers that make up the OLED device.
Working principle of OLEDs:
When a voltage is applied across the OLED, a current flows through the
device and into the emissive layer.
As the current passes through the emissive layer, the organic molecules
become excited and move to a higher energy state.
When they return to their original energy state, they release energy in the
form of photons, which create the visible light that can be seen.

Electroluminescence mechanism in an OLED

Properties of OLEDs: Some of the key propertiesof Organic Light
Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) include
l. Thinness and flexibility: OLEDS are very thin and flexible, which
makes them suitable for use in curved or flexible displays,
2. High contrast: OLEDs have a high contrast ratio, which means that
they can produce deep blacks and bright whites, resulting in images
with intense and rich colours.
3. Fast response time: OLEDS have a fast response time, which means
that they can switch on and off quickly, resulting in smooth and
seamless motion in video content.
4. Wide viewing angle: OLEDs have a wide viewing angle, which
means that the image quality is maintained even when viewed from
different angles.
5. Energy efficiency: OLEDs are energy efficient, as they do not
require a backlight like traditional LCD displays, resulting in lower
power consumption.
6. Self-emissive: OLEDs are self-emissive, which means that they do not
require a separate light source, resulting in a thinner display.
7. Long lifespan: OLEDs have a long lifespan, as they do not contain a
backlight that can degrade over time, resulting in a longer-lasting display.
Applications Of OLEDs: Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) have
a wide range of applications due to their unique properties, including
high contrast, energy efficiency, thinness, and flexibility. Here are some
of the applications of OLEDs:
[Link] and displays: OLED displays are used in televisions,
monitors, smart phones, and other electronic devices.
2. Lighting: OLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various
automotive applications, including & lighting street lighting, and
architectural lighting.
3. Wearable devices: The thin and flexible nature of OLEDs makes
them suitable for use in wearable devices, such as smart watches and
fitness trackers.
4. Automotive: OLEDS can be used in automotive applications, such as
dashboard displays, interior lighting. and tail lights.
5. Medical: OLIEDs can be used in medical applications, such as in
surgical lighting and medical imaging. They offer bright and highly
accurate lighting options that can help improve medical
procedures and diagnosis.
Disadvantagcs:
An important drawback of the OLED technology is the lack
of trust and cheap patterning methods for various color pixels.
OLEDS are composed of small molecule organics. they are
not consistent with the classical not graphical pattering
techniques that necessitate exposure to solvents which
completely deteriorate the structures of OLEDs.
4.2.6 QUANTUM LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (QLED'S):
"Quantum dot light emitting diodes are a form of light emitting
technology and consist of nanoscale crystals that can provide an
alternative for applications such as display technology".
Quantum dots (QDs) are promising materials for the emissive component
of self-emissive light emitting diodes (LEDS) due to their high colour
saturation in, a narrow wavelength range, easy colour tunability by
control of their size and prominent stability Electrouminescence (EL)-
based quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QD-LEDS) driven by an field
also have a flexible form factor and superior CR (contrast ratio) because
they are self emissive devices such as OLEDs.
Moreover , since EL-based QD-LEDS utilize the ultimate material
properties of inorganic QDs, a high scope, of colour with high colour
tunability and electrical stability are expected. Therefore, QD-LED
technology is getting increasingly attractive as a new device technology
for next-generation smart displays.
Construction of QD-LED:

 A QD-LED device consists of two electrodes, an anode and a

cathode and a QD layer placed.
 When a voltage is applied to a QD-LED device, charge carriers are
injected from the electrodes to the QD layer.
 Anode injects holes (positive charges) and cathode injects electrons
(negative charges) to the System
 The holes and electrons are transported to an emission site and
recombine.
 QD material in the emission site is excited by recombination of holes
and electrons.
 When exited QD returns to its ground state, emits photons.
 In QD-LED, for better recombination efficiency, a single layer of
QDs in colloidal form as an emissive layer is used.

Properties of QLEDs:
[Link] and vibrant colors: QLEDs are capable of producing
highly accurate and vibrant colors due to their use of quantum dots
which emit light of a specific color when they are excited by a light
source or an electrical current.
2. Energy-efficient: QLEDS are more energy-efficient than traditional
LCD displays because they do not require as much backlighting.
3. High contrast: QLED displays have high contrast ratios, which mean
that the difference between the darkest and brightest areas of the display
is greater, resulting in more detailed and lifelike images.
4. Long lifespan: QLEDs have a longer lifespan than traditional LCD
displays because they do not suffer from the same issues of backlight
burn out or color fading over time.
5. Fast response times: QLED displays have fast response times, which
mean that they can display fast-moving images without motion blur or
ghosting.
6. Flexibility: QLEDs can be made on flexible substrates, which allows
for the creation of flexible displays that can be bent or curved.
Applications of QLEDs:
[Link] and displays: QLED displays are commonly used in televisions,
monitors, smart phones, and other electronic [Link] offer superior image
quality and color accuracy compared to traditional LCD displays.
2. Lighting: QLEDS can also be used as a source of lighting in various
applications, including automotive lighting, street lighting, and architectural
lighting. They offer energy-efficient and highly customizable lighting options.
[Link] imaging: QLEDs can be used in medical imaging applications, such
as in MRI machines, to produce high-resolution and accurate images.
[Link] and augmented reality:QLED displays are suitable for use in virtual
and augmented reality applications due to their ability to produce vibrant and
accurate colors, which can enhance the immersive experience.
5. Advertising displays: QLED displays can be used in advertising displays,
such as digital billboards and signage, to produce high-quality and eye-catching
visuals.