MODULE 1: SENSORS AND ENERGY SYSTEM

Sensors: Introduction, working, principle and applications of

Conductometric sensors, Electrochemical sensors, Thermometric
sensors (Flame photometry) and Optical sensors (colorimetry). Sensors
for the measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO). Electrochemical
sensors for the pharmaceuticals. Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx
and NOx. Disposable sensors in the detection of biomolecules and
pesticides.
Energy Systems: Introduction to batteries, construction, working and
applications of Lithium ion and Sodium ion batteries. Quantum Dot
Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s) - Principle, Properties and
Applications.
Introduction
A sensor is a device that receives a signal (i.e. physical, chemical or biological
signal) and responds to the signal in the form of an electrical signal. The
output signals correspond to some forms of electrical signal, such as current or
voltage.
Components of a sensor
A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from
the physical environment.
The signal could be heat, light, motion or chemical
A sensor converts the signal into an Analog or digital representation of the
input signal.
Sensors detect and / measure many different conditions
Ex: Human sensors [Link] -light
[Link]- sound 3. Mouth - taste 4. nose- smell
5. Hand- detects pressure and temperature.
Sensors:
A sensor is a device that detects changes and events in a
physical stimulus and provides a corresponding output signal
that can be measured and/or recorded".
Actuators:
Actuators are the devices that work opposite to sensors. A
sensor converts a physical event into an electrical signal, whereas
an actuator converts electrical signal into a physical event.
Transducers:
Transducers are the devices that convert energy in one form
into another form. Generally, the energy is in the form of a
signal. Transducer is a term collectively used for both sensors and
Basic concept of sensors:
Detects the presence of energy.
Detects change in or the transfer of energy.
Detect by receiving a signal then responding to that signal.
Convert signal into a readable output.
Ex: Mercury thermometer – 1. The quantity measured is a heat or temperature.
2. measured temperature is converted to a readable value on the calibrated glass tube.
3. it’s based on the expansion of liquid mercury.

Types of sensors:
 Thermal sensors: thermometer, resistance temperature detectors (RTDS)
 Mechanical sensors: pressure sensors barometer accelerometer, liquid flow
sensor
 Electrical sensors: voltmeter, galvanometer, ammeter.
 Chemical sensors: CO2 detector, oxygen sensor.
 Optical sensor: photo detectors, infra -red sensors.
 Other types of sensors: speedo meters, biological sensors, acoustic wave
sensors.
Electrochemical sensors:
Electrochemical sensors are devices that detect and measure the concentration of the analyte
by converting electrochemical reaction between analyte and electrode surface into an
electrical signal (electrical signal may be potential, current or conductance).
In electrochemical sensors the electrode or a set of electrodes is used as transducer element.
Hence these sensors are often called as Electrochemical cells.
Depending on the mode of signal transduction, electrochemical sensors can be classified in to
following types,
1. Potentiometric (measure voltage): Information about the composition of a sample is
obtained from the potential difference between two electrodes.
2. Amperometric (measure current): Current is measured with respect to the potential
applied between a reference and a working electrode which causes the oxidation or reduction
of an electroactive species.
3. Conductometric (measure conductivity): Changes in electrical conductivity/ resistance is
measured with respect to the potential applied between a reference and a working electrode
which causes the oxidation or reduction of an electroactive species.
Construction of electrochemical sensor
• Electrochemical sensor consists of a sensing electrode (or working electrode), a counter
electrode and a reference electrode in electrolyte.
• The sensing electrode has a chemically modified surface, facilitating the reduction or
oxidation of the analyte.
• The role of electrolyte is to transport charge within the sensor and contact all electrodes
effectively.

Working Principle of electrochemical sensor

Electrochemical sensor consists of a transducer element
covered by a recognition element. The recognition
element interacts with target analyte and signal is
generated. Electrochemical transducers transform the
chemical changes into electrical Signals.
The electric signals are related to the concentration of analyte. Electrochemical sensing
always requires a closed circuit that consists of two electrodes. These sensors are often called
an electrochemical cell.
Applications:
 Electrochemical sensors used for the detection of blood glucose
 Electrochemical sensors are used for pH measurements
 Used in soil parameter analysis and in agriculture applications to detect
pesticides.
 Used in the detection of hydrocarbon pollutants.
 To detect dissolved oxygen in boiler water and to monitor dissolved oxygen
concentration in metal melts and glasses.
 Used in security and defense applications like detection of toxic gases and
warfare agents.
 Used in water analysis and environmental monitoring like measurements of
toxic metal concentration in water, pH of water and detection of oxides of
nitrogen, sulphur and carbon.
 Clinical chemistry,the determination of blood glucose, Ca 2+, Fe2+ and uric acid.
 Used in the detection of enzymes and hormones to monitor cancer.
[Link] sensors:
Conductometric sensors are a type of chemical sensor that measures the
electrical conductivity of a solution to detect the presence and
concentration of ions.

Principle:
The basic principle of conductometric detection is based on the
measurement of specific conductance of an analyte which is dependent
on,
 The concentration of ions (number of ions).
 Mobility of ion depends on its size. Smaller the size higher is the
mobility and higher is the electrolytic conductance.
Working:
 The conductivity is the result of dissociation an
electrolyte into ions. The migration of the ions is
induced by an electrical field.
 When a potential difference is applied to the
electrode, there is an electrical field within the
electrolyte, so Figure Migration of charges
 the positively charged ions move towards cathode in conductometric sensors

and negatively charged ions move towards

anode(Figure).
 Thus, the current in the electrolyte is caused by the
ion movement towards the electrodes where the ions
are neutralized and isolated as neutral atoms (or
molecules).
 The output is measured using a conductometer.
[Link]: A typical conductivity sensor consists of two or more electrodes made of
conductive materials. These electrodes are usually placed at a fixed distance from each
other.
[Link] Potential: An electrical potential (voltage) is applied across the electrodes.
This creates an electric field in the solution between the electrodes.
[Link] Movement: In a solution, various ions (charged particles) may be present,
contributing to the conductivity of the solution. These ions can be positively charged
(cations) or negatively charged (anions). When the electrical potential is applied, these
ions start to move towards the oppositely charged electrode.
[Link] Flow: As ions move through the solution towards the electrodes, they carry an
electric current. The higher the concentration of ions in the solution, the greater the current
flow, and consequently, the higher the conductivity.
[Link]: The sensor measures the current flowing between the electrodes. The
conductivity of the solution is then calculated using Ohm’s Law (I = V/R), where I is the
current, V is the voltage, and R is the electrical resistance. Conductivity (σ) is often
expressed in Siemens per meter (S/m) or micro siemens per centimeter (μS/cm).
Applications:
 Used to estimate acids, bases and their mixtures in the sample.
 Used to check the amount of ionic impurities in water samples.
 Used in measuring acidity or alkalinity of sea water and fresh water.
 Conductometic biosensors are used in biomedicine, environment monitoring,
biotechnology and agriculture related applications.
 Used in enzyme catalysis to determine analyte concentration and enzyme activity and
selectivity.
 Screen-printed conductometric sensor with inter digital gold electrodes on glass substrate
coated with molecularly imprinted polyurethane layers was fabricated to detect polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in water.
 A conductometric sensor consisting of a silicon substance with a pair of gold inters
digitized and serpentine electrodes are used to determine urea.
 The conductometric biosensor based on inhibition analysis, was intended for the
determination of organo phosphorous pesticides.
Optical Sensors
Optical sensors are electronic components designed to detect and convert incident
light rays into electrical signals". Ex: Colorimetric sensors
Working principle:
When a sample solution is interacted with a light of suitable wavelength,
certain quantity of light is absorbed by the analyte solution and it is observed by a
sensor and transducer converts intensity of absorbed light into electrical signal.
The change in intensity at certain wavelength within visible (400-800mm) range can
be determined using a special instrumentation.

A photon (ultraviolet, visible, or near-infrared light) is converted to photocathode

into a low-energetic electron, emitted from the vacuum. This electron is accelerated
towards and focused onto the first dynode, releasing secondary electrons. This
multiplication is repeated in sub sequent dynodes, resulting in a measurable electric
charge at the anode.
Working:
A monochromatic light is pass through analyte at particular wavelength. A part of
light is absorbed by the analyte. The absorbance depends on the concentration of
the solution and the path length of the light through the solution. The photocell
converts emitted light into electrical signal These signals are recorded and
displayed.
Source: tungsten bulb or lamp is used as a light source.
Filter: It is a device to provide desired wavelength range
Sample cell: sample is hold in glass cell.
Photocell: Converts the emitted light into electrical signal.
Applications of optical sensors:
 Used to detect and measure different types of chemical, biochemical
molecules and [Link]: Ions in solution (pH, metal ions and anions),
gases (CO2 O2, NH3, SO2, NO2, NO etc).
 Used in imaging, remote sensing satellite, metrology, medical devices and
quality process control-based applications.
 Breath analyzers: used to detect alcohol consumption.
 Biomedical and healthcare applications (dentistry to measure blood flow
in the teeth, Contactless sanitizer dispensers)
 Industrial and Agricultural applications
 Optical sensors are used in smart phones for adjusting the brightness of
the screen, smart watches to measure the heart beat of the person, as
essential parts in devices like Xerox machines, computers & light fixtures.
 Biometrics applications.
Temperature sensor
Temperature sensors are simple devices that sense the degree of cold or heat and
transform it into a simple unit". A thermocouple is another common example of
thermometric sensors. Thermocouple is constructed from two different metals that produce an
electrical output voltage in direct relation with the temperature modification.

It is an instrument designed to detect the level of coolness or hotness of an object

which gives temperature measurement in the readable form via an electrical signal.
Principle: The sensor is made up of two metals, which generate electrical voltage
or resistance once it notices a change in temperature.
Working principle of thermometric sensors:
 Main component is a small tubular catalytic reactor fitted with a temperature transducer.
Analyte is fed into the reactor.
 The wall of the reactor is coated with a catalyst which is capable of catalyzing the
reaction, liberating the heat energy.
 Heat liberated is quantified by transducer and convert into voltage and fed to the data
storage and processing unit.
The two main transducers which convert change in
temperature into an electric signal are
1. Resistive transducers: Most commonly used
resistive transducer is the thermistor. It is a
semiconductor device made up of oxides of
transition metals.
2. Thermocouple: It is a device which converts the
temperature difference into an electrical
voltage.
Applications:
1. Home appliances – kettles, toasters, washing machines, dishwashers and
coffee machines will all contain temperature sensors.
2. Computers and Integrated circuits– within computers or Integrated
circuits there are temperature sensors to ensure the system does not
overheat.
3. Medical applications: thermometer to measure the temperature of
individuals.
4. Vehicles use temperature sensors within their radiator.
5. Glass manufacturing -relies on temperature measurement for the
regulation and optimization of their production process.
6. Chemical industries -They are required to measure extremely high
temperatures to monitor chemical reactions.
Sensors for the measurement of dissolved oxygen
There are two types of DO sensors namely; electrochemical and optical.
Electrochemical DO sensors are also known as amperometric or Clark-type sensors,
measure dissolved oxygen concentration in water based on electrical current produced.

Optical DO sensors, popularly known as luminescent

DO sensors (LDO) but some are called fluorescent
sensors, measure dissolved oxygen concentration in
water based on the quenching of luminescence in the
presence of oxygen.
Polarographic and galvanic are the types of
electrochemical DO sensors. The advantages of
galvanic sensors over polarographic sensors are
that they don't require outside voltage source and
warn-up time to operate and their electrolyte can
be used for a long time.
They can measure either the intensity or the lifetime of the luminescence as oxygen affects both.
Optical Sensors:
The main component of optical sensors is semi permeable
membrane, sensing element, light emitting diode (LED) and
photo detector. The sensing element contains a luminescent
dye.
Working:
When the dye is exposed to light, it moves to excited state and
return to ground state by emitting light with known intensity.
When the DO crosses the semi permeable membrane and interacts
with the dye, it reduces the intensity of the light emitted by dye.
The intensity of the emitted light inversely proportional to the DO
concentration. This intensity of light is measured using photo
MEASUREMENT OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)
(ELECTROCHEMICAL) SENSOR:
Galvanic Sensor is an electrochemical sensor, which is used to
measure DO content present in the water based samples.
Working principle of galvanic sensor:
The components of galvanic sensor are
i. Cathode- Pt, Zn, Pb or any other active metal
ii. Anode - Ag
iii. Electrolyte - KOH, NaOH or any other inert
iv. Membrane – Gas permeable Membrane (Teflon)
 The cathode and anode are dissimilar metals (different electrode potentials). In
order to reduce oxygen without an external applied potential, the difference in
potential between the anode and the cathode should be at least 0.5V.
 DO sensor is immersed in water sample, the potential between dissimilar metals
causes them to self-polarize with the electrons travelling internally from the
anode to the cathode.
 The cathode accepts electrons from the anode via an internal circuit and passes
them on to the oxygen molecules.
 Molecular oxygen is reduced (OH-) at the surface of the cathode
 This reaction produces an electrical current that is directly related to the oxygen
concentration.
Electrochemical sensor for the detection of Pharmaceuticals:
 Pharmaceuticals are organic compounds, extensively used for
different health issues.
 After usage they are excreted and enter into the environment and these
complex organic molecules are with lower biodegradability.
 Hence sensors are used for the detection of pharmaceuticals to
monitor their concentration and known their toxic effects.
 Electrochemical sensors are valuable tools for detecting
pharmaceuticals due to their high sensitivity, speed, and
compatibility with complex samples.
 These sensors utilize electrochemical reactions at an electrode
surface to identify and quantify drug molecules.
Electrochemical sensors for the detection of pharmaceuticals
(diclofenac)
Electrochemical detection occurs at the interface between an analyte (diclofenac)
of interest and the working electrode to which a potential is applied with respect to
the reference electrode while the corresponding current is measured. Different
sensors are developed for the detection of Diclofenac such as;
Potentiometric sensor (low sensitivity)
Bio-sensor
Electrochemical sensor with unmodified carbon electrode
Electrochemical sensor with modified carbon electrode
Detection of diclofenac using SPCE combined with MCNT and graphene sensor:
Components of disposable screen printed carbon paste electrode (SPCE) combined with
multi walled carbon nanotubes (MCNT) and graphene for diclofenac detection has three
electrodes sensor.
Various sensing and biosensing materials used in the electrochemical detection of
diclofenac.
Talanta Open Volume 3, August 2021, 100026
Working:
Working electrode: Carbon paste with Graphene
Counter electrode: Carbon paste with MCNT
Reference electrode: Ag/AgCl
The electrochemical oxidation of DCF (diclofenac) on carbon-based sensor at pH 7.0 is
reversible reaction. When the sample containing diclofenac is put in the sensor, oxidation of
diclofenac occurs on the surface of the sensing electrode. The change in potential of the
reaction gives the concentration of diclofenac.
Oxidation of Diclofenac occurs at carbon electrode to release electron, to form
radical intermediates and followed hydrolysis of radical intermediate species.
The products formed are 2, 6-dichloro aniline and 2-(2-hydroxyphenyl) acetic
acid.
Reactions on the electrode cause the current to flow.
The intensity of this current is a function of the number of Oxidized / reduced
molecules.

• DCF is most frequently prescribed non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

with antipyretic and analgesic effects.
• DCF is widely used for the treatment of spondylitis, acute muscle pain and
osteoarthritis.
• Electrochemical sensors offer a sensitive and selective method for detecting
diclofenac (DCF), a widely used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug.
Electrochemical sensors for detection of hydrocarbons (1-
Hydroxypyrene)
 Working electrode: PAMAM / Cr- MOF / GO
 Counter Electrode: Platinum
 Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
 PAMAM: Polyamidoamine (Dendrimer)
 Cr- MOF: Carbon coated with Chromium containing Metal Organic
Frame work
 GO : Graphene Oxide
(Composite)
Working:
 When the sample containing 1- Hydroxypyrene is put in the sensor, oxidation
of 1- Hydroxypyrene occurs on the surface of the sensing electrode.
 The change in potential of the reaction gives the concentration of 1-
Hydroxypyrene.
 The electrons liberated at the working electrode due to the oxidation of 1-
Hydroxypyrene will result in the flow of current between counter electrode
and working electrode.
 The no of liberated electrons is proportional to the concentration of 1-
Hydroxypyrene in the analyte solution.
 By measuring the current, the concentration of 1-Hydroxypyrene can be
determined.
Electrochemical gas sensors:
 Gas sensors detect chemicals in the gas phase operate by reacting with the gas of interest
and producing an electrical signal proportional to the gas concentration.
Electrochemical sensors are used to detect the presence of toxic gases such as H2S, Cl2,
and SO2 and variation of oxygen in the air.
 Similar to other electrochemical sensors, except in this case gases diffuse through a
membrane to be reduced or oxidized at an electrode. Initially gas passes through a
small capillary-type opening and then diffuses through a hydrophobic barrier, and
eventually reaches the electrode surface.
 Electrochemical sensors operate by reacting with the analyte and producing an electrical
signal. Most electrochemical gas sensors are amperometric sensors, generating a
current that is linearly proportional to the gas concentration. The current is
quantitatively related to the rate of the electrolytic process at the sensing electrode (also
known as working electrode) whose potential commonly is kept constant using another
electrode (the so-called reference electrode).
Working Principle:
Gas that comes in contact with the sensor first passes through a small capillary-type opening, filter and then
diffuses through a hydrophobic barrier, and finally reaches the electrode surface. This approach allows the
proper amount of gas to react at the sensing electrode to produce a sufficient electrical signal while preventing
the electrolyte from leaking out of the sensor.
Adsorption of analyte gas molecule on the surface of sensing electrode.
A suitable voltage is applied to the sensing electrode and that makes the sensor specific to the target gas.
The analyte gas reacts at the surface of the sensing electrode involving either an oxidation or reduction
mechanism. These reactions are catalyzed by the electrode materials specifically developed for the analyte gas
of interest.
Current proportional to the gas concentration flows between the anode and the cathode is measured.
Concentration of analyte gas is determined on the basis of current flow.
Significance of SOX and NOX pollutants:
 The major contributors to traditional air pollution are SO X ,NOX and
H2S while NH3 and Volatile organic compounds are of increasing
concern recently.
 Traditional air quality monitors based on mass spectroscopy, infra-red
spectroscopy and gas chromatography are expensive and not suitable
for large scale development.
 Electrochemical gas sensors provide a cheap alternative option for
widespread air quality monitoring.
 Electrochemical gas sensor interacts with a gas to measure its
concentration and each gas has a unique voltage; the electric field at
which it is ionized. Sensor identifies gases by measuring these
voltages.
Working principle of NOX gas sensor:
Electrochemical sensors can detect both NO and NO2, which together make up NOX. A
disposable gPAD (gas-sensing Paper-based Device) using a Screen-Printed Graphene
electrode modified with copper nanoparticles has shown high sensitivity and selectivity
for detecting NOx.
Chemiresistive sensors based on graphene
and its derivatives have been used to
measure NOx .
Chemiresistive sensors measure the change
in resistance upon exposure to analyte
gases and can detect toxic gases at very low
concentrations.
Chemiresistive sensors are chemical sensors that measure changes in electrical
resistance to detect and quantify the presence of analytes. They rely on the direct
chemical interaction between a sensing material and the analyte, which alters the resistance of
the material.
In general, the response obtained in a chemi-resistive sensor is;
%R= Ro-Rg/Ro * 100 Where R% is the reported sensor response;
Ro is the resistance in dry clean air; Rg is the new resistance
observed under analyte gas.
Reactions

The concentration of electrons decreases due to the reaction between

the electrons in the sensing materials and NOx gas, as shown above,
and resistance offered by electrons decreases and current increases.
"Higher the concentration of NOx, lesser would be the resistance".
Working principle: Automotive NOx sensors are primarily of the amperometric
type, with two or three electrochemical cells in adjacent chambers. The
development of exhaust gas NOx sensors started in the 1990s.
The detection of nitrogen oxide is of crucial importance in the environment
monitoring. Nitrogen oxides, NO and NO2, denoted generally as NOx, are
formed during the fuel burning in stationary sources (energy plants) and in the
automotives’ engines, from the elements of the air, in the harsh conditions (high
temperatures, especially in case of Diesel engines). The need to remove
O2 allows this type of NOx sensor to serve a dual purpose; it can also detect
exhaust O2 level. Zirconia-based solid electrolyte is used in NOx sensors.
1. In Chamber 1, any oxygen present in the exhaust gas is removed or
electrochemically pumps O2 out of the sample so it does not interfere with the
NOx measurement in the second cell. Au is insensitive to NOx, Pt-Au alloy
electrode is used to pump excess oxygen out of the chamber.
2. In Chamber 1, combustible gases present in the exhaust gas are burned.
3. In Chamber 1, NO2 present in the exhaust gas is replaced with NO.
NO2 → NO+1/2 O2
4. In Chamber 2, the NO is decomposed by the reduction catalyst, and the amount
of oxygen generated at the time of decomposition is measures. Pt-Rh alloy
electrode can be used to catalyze the reduction of NOx.
2NO → N2 + O2
Function of NOx sensors
1. Emission reduction
2. Energy efficiency
3. Environmentally friendly
Working principle of SO2 gas sensor:
 The sulfur dioxide sensor works on the electrochemical
principle.
 It works based on the diffusion of SO2 gas into the sensor.
 Initially SO2 oxidizes to produce oxygen free radical and
converted to molecular oxygen.
 Electrons are consumed from sensor for the reduction of O2
and number of electrons decreases on the electrode surface.
Resistance of the electrode is a function of concentration of SO 2.
%R= Ro-Rg/Ro * 100; Where R% is the reported sensor response; Ro is the
resistanee :dry clean air: Rg is he new resistance observed under analyte gas.
Disposable Sensors:
Disposable sensors are film-based sensors that can be used for low-volume production,
vacuum infusion or special applications and in R&D projects. They don't need a fixed
installation and can be used in places that permanent sensor can be used such as curved areas,
bag-side and are implantable in the laminates.
“Disposable sensors are low-cost and easy-to-use sensing devices intended for short-
term or rapid single-point measurements”
Advantages of Disposable sensors:
1. Cost-Effectiveness: Disposable sensors are affordable-low-cost, easy-to-use sensing devices
designed for single-use or short-term measurements.
2. Ease of Use and Portability: Their compact size and lightweight nature make them highly
portable, enabling on-site testing in diverse locations
3. Reduced Maintenance and Calibration: Disposable sensors do not require periodic cleaning,
calibration, or repair, which reduces the operational overhead and associated costs.
4. Applications in Diverse Fields: Medical Diagnostics, Food Safety& Environmental
Monitoring
5. Improved Accessibility and Scalability: The ease of use and low cost of disposable sensors
make them more accessible to a wider range of users, including individuals in remote areas or
those with limited resources.
Detection of Biomolecules: Ascorbic acid (AA)
Disposable electrochemical sensors can effectively detect
ascorbic acid (AA), also known as vitamin C, by utilizing the molecule's
electroactivity.
These sensors are based on principles like voltammetry and
amperometry, where the oxidation of AA at an electrode surface is
detected.
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) can be oxidized to dehydroascorbic
acid (DHA) under various conditions, including light, heat, metal
Detection of Ascorbic acid (bimolecular) by disposable screen-
printed carbon electrodes sensor (CNT with gold
nanoparticles):
 It comprises of three disposable electrodes i.e.
 Working Electrode
 Auxiliary or Counter Electrode, and
 Reference Electrode.
 All electrodes have been manufactured by silkscreen printing with conductive
material ink on a plastic polyester (PET) Sheet.
 The active surfaces of the counter electrode and working electrode have been
printed with a conductive ink of carbon (MWCNT) and modified with gold
nanoparticles.
 Active surface of the reference electrode has been printed with an Ag/AgCl link.
Working of disposable SPCE sensor:
 The electrochemical sensor can catalyze the two-electron electro catalytic oxidation
and hydrogen dissociation of AA to L- dehydroascorbic acid in the presence of
oxygen in solution.
 The carboxyl MWCNTs act as electron transfer mediators promoting the electron
transfer between AA molecules and the matrix interface.
 Increases the electro catalytic oxidation of AA during electrochemical detection and
transduce their presence into measurable signals.
 The electric current or voltage produced is proportional to the concentration of the
ascorbic acid.
Pesticides: pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing,
destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest.
Examples of pesticides are fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides. Synthetic chemical
pesticides are glyphosate, Acephate, Deet, Boric Acid, Diazinon, DDT etc

Electrochemical oxidation : It is a promising method for removing glyphosate, a widely used

herbicide, from contaminated water. This technique utilizes the electrochemical production of
highly reactive hydroxyl radicals to oxidize and degrade glyphosate. Electrochemical
advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs) are particularly effective because they can rapidly and
efficiently mineralize various contaminants, including glyphosate in to non-toxic compounds
like CO2, water, and inorganic ions.

Glyphosphate: Glyphosate is a widely used, non-selective herbicide(it's used to kill weeds

and unwanted plants) known for its effectiveness in controlling broadleaf weeds and grasses.
Glyphosate works by inhibiting a specific enzyme in plants, disrupting their ability to grow
Detection of Glyphosate by disposable electrochemical sensor:
The sensor is a silicon- based chip comprising of three-electrode system. It is fabricated by
electro deposition technique.
Working electrode: A gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 200nm thickness gold
nanoparticles.
Counter electrode: A gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 20nm thickness gold
nanoparticles
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl/CI
Electrolytes are added to increase the conductivity of the solution and minimizes the
resistance
between the working and counter electrode.
Working:
 The electrochemical detection is based on the oxidation of Glyphosate on gold working
electrode.
 A potential of 0.78V is applied on working electrode, there is an interaction between analyte
and electrode surface.
 Glyphosate oxidizes on the working electrode and brought a change in current in the
electrolyte medium.
Electrochemical Oxidation of Glyphosphate
ENERGY SYSTEMS
Introduction
"A battery or a cell is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy",
designates a single unit whereas, a battery is an arrangement of two or more cells, usually
connected in series or parallel to supply the necessary current. Batteries are used in radio sets,
calculators, mobile phones, hearing aids etc.
Components of a battery: There are six different important components make up a typical
household battery. Each element has its own job to do, and all the different parts of a battery
working together create the reliable and Jong-lasting power you rely on every day.
1 Container: Steel can that houses the cell's ingredients to form the cathode. a part of the
electrochemical reaction.
[Link]: A combo of manganese dioxide and carbon, cathodes are the lcctrodes reduced
by the clectrochemical reaction.
3. Separator: Non-woven, fibrous fabric that separates the electrodes.
4. Anode: Made of powered zinc metal, anodes are electrodes that are oxidized.
5. Electrolyte: Potassium hydroxide solution in water. the clectrolyte is the medium for the
movement of ions within the cell. It carrics the iconic current inside the battery.
6. Collector: Brass pin in the middle of the cell that conducts electricity to the outside circuit.
Classification of batteries
1. Primary batteries
1. In primary batteries, the chemical energy is converted into electrical energy as long as the chemical
components are active.
2. These batteries the reaction occurs only once and after that they must be discarded.
3. These batteries cannot be recharged as the chemical reactions which occur within the primary batteries are
irreversible.
Examples: Zn- air battery, Dry cell, Li- MnO2
In these cells electrical energy is produced at the expense of chemical
energy as long as active materials are present. They cannot be recharged and reused. Ex: Dry cell (Zn-MnO,
battery).
2. Secondary batteries
1. Secondary batteries are those which after discharging can be recharged.
2. These batteries chemical reactions taking place are reversible
3. The redox reaction which converts chemical energy into electrical energy can be reversed by passage of
current.
4. The electric energy is stored in the form of chemical energy these batteries are also known a storage cell.
Example: Lead storage battery, Nickel-cadmium battery, Nickel-metal hydride battery and Lithium-ion
battery.
cell acts as only as a galvanic cell or voltaic cell, a secondary cell can act both
as galvanic cell and electrolytic cell. During discharge it acts as a galvanic cell, converting
chemical energy into electrical energy and during charge it acts as an electrolytic cell
converting clectrical cnergy into chemical energy. Ex: Lead storage battery, Ni-Cd battery,
ctc.
3. Reserve Batteries
1. These batteries one of the components is isolated and incorporated into the battery
when required.
2. The electrolyte is the component that is isolated, but some water activated batteries
contain the electrolyte solute and water is added for activation.
3. They are used to deliver high power for relatively short periods of time in application
such as radiosondes (air borne instruments to send to meteorological information back to
earth by radio).
Examples: Mg batteries activated by water (Mg-AgCl, Mg-CuCl), Zn-Ag2O batteries
etc
Construction, working and applications of lithium -ion batteries (secondary)
Construction:
A conventional lithium ion battery consists of
Anode: carbon (graphite) and
Cathode: LiCoO2 (lithium cobalt oxide)
Electrolyte: lithium salt in an organic solvent.
(The salts include LiPF6 (lithium hexafluorophosphate), LiBF4 (lithium tetrafluoroborate), LiCIO4
(lithium perchlorate). The solvents used are ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, diethyl
carbonate etc. A non-aqueous electrolyte is used because lithium is highly reactive and reacts with
water to form lithium hydroxide and hydrogen.

Anode: Lithium intercalated compounds; Ex: LixC6

Cathode: Lithium-containing layered transition metal oxide (LiMO2); Ex: LiCoO2
Electrolyte: Lithium salts (LiPF6) in organic solvents (ethylene carbonate)
Separator: polyolefin/polypropylene.
Working:
 In lithium ion battery, lithium ions move between the electrodes, using an
intercalated electrode material.
 Metal atoms and ions can enter layered solids reversibly hence this process
is referred to as intercalation.
 During discharge, Li comes out of the layers of LixC6 as Li+ ions and
migrates towards the cathode and gets discharged.
 Cobalt oxide being a layered solid accommodates Li in its layers thus
completing the conduction process.
 This process continues as long as the Li present in the graphite and once the Li is
consumed completely, the battery needs charging.
 During charge, the reverse reaction takes place wherein Li in the cobalt oxide
is released as Li + ions and migrates back to the layers of graphite.
 Thus, the Li ion battery acts as a secondary cell.
The net reversible reaction during charge/discharge is;
LixC6 + Li1-X CoO2 → 6C + LiCoO2
Applications of Lithium-ion Batteries:
Li-ion batteries are available in all shapes and sizes. Some of the most common applications of
lithium-ion batteries are:
 Power backups UPS
 Mobile. Laptops, and other commonly used consumer electronic goods
 Electic mobility
Li-ion Battery
Construction
It consists of a lithium metal oxide for the positive electrode and lithiated carbon for the
negative electrode. These materials are adhered to a metal foil current collector with a binder,
typically polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) or the copolymer polyvinylidene fluoride
hexafluroropropylene (PVDF-HFP), and a conductive diluent, graphite. The positive and
negative electrodes are electrically isolated by a microporous polyolefine/polypropylene
separator. A solution of LiPF6 in organic solvent like dimethyl carbonate and ethylene
carbonate acts as electrolyte.
Components:
Anode (-ve electrode): Lithiated carbon
Cathode (+ve electrode): Lithiated metal oxide LiMO2 (M=Co, Mn, Ni)
Electrolyte: LiPF6 in dimethyl carbonate and ethylene carbonate.
Separator: poly olefin/polypropylene.
Working
• The anode and cathode store the lithium. During discharging Li atoms present in the graphite layer are oxidized, liberating Li
ions and electrons. Li ions migrate from anode to cathode through electrolyte through the separator which selectively allows
only the Li ion to pass through and block the flow of electrons inside battery.
• At cathode, Li ions are reduced to Li atoms and are inserted in to the structures of metal oxide.
• During charging of the battery, Li atoms present in the structure of metal oxide get oxidized liberating Li ions and electrons.
The liberated Li ion moves through the separator towards the graphite carbonate electrode (anode).
• At the graphite electrode, Li ions get reduced to Li atoms and gets inserted into the layered structure of graphite.

Applications:
It is used in cell phones, laptops, automobiles, defense and
aerospace applications.
Li-ion battery has more advantages than traditional
rechargeable battery:
i) High voltage: Lithium batteries have voltages up to about 4
V, depending on the cathode material,
ii) highly stable
iii) wide operating temperature (ie. from -40 oC to +70oC)
iv) Flat discharge Characteristics
v) High specific energy and energy density.

Fig: Li-ion battery

 Na-ion battery
Sodium-ion batteries are a potential alternative to lithium-based battery
technologies, largely due to sodium's lower cost and greater availability. Na-ion
battery is a type of rechargeable battery that uses sodium ions (Na+) as its charge
carriers. Its working principle and cell construction are almost identical with those
of lithium-ion battery types, but replace lithium with sodium.
Construction
Anode: carbon (C6) anode
Cathode: layered transition metal oxide, NaMO2,
Electrolyte: Sodium hexafluorophosphate is an inorganic compound with the
chemical formula Na[PF6].
Separator: poly olefin/polypropylene.
Working
• During discharging sodium atoms present in the carbon anode
undergo oxidation, liberating Na ions and electrons. Na ions migrate
from anode to cathode through electrolyte through the separator which
selectively allows only the Na ion to pass through and block the flow of
electrons inside battery.
• At cathode, Na ions are reduced to sodium metal and are inserted in to
the structures of metal oxide.
• During charging of the battery, sodium metal present in the structure
of metal oxide get oxidized liberating Na ions and electrons. The
liberated Na ion moves through the separator towards the carbon
electrode (anode).
• At the anode, Na ions get reduced to sodium metal and gets inserted
into the layered structure of carbon.
 Fig: Na-ion battery

Sodium-ion batteries have several advantages over competing battery technologies.

Compared to lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries have somewhat lower cost,
slightly lower energy density, better safety characteristics, and similar power
delivery characteristics.
Application of sodium ion battery:
1. Sodium-ion batteries have shown great promise for large scale storage of renewable energy.
2. Sodium-ion batteries are cheaper and last longer than cell currently used in gadgets.
3. These factors price, abundance and size, make sodium-ion batteries particularly interesting
for large scale grid storage application.
Advantages of sodium ion battery
4. Rechargeable sodium ion for energy storage.
5. Easier to recycle
6. Low market prices
7. Capable of working at room temperature, good efficiency.
Disadvantages of sodium ion battery.
8. Large ionic size Na+ which require more power to keep energy flowing.
9. It takes seven days to charge in case you forget to charge it.
Lower operating voltage.
Quantum dot sensitized solar cells (QDSSC's)
"A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell design that uses quantum dots as a
absorbing photovoltaic material". It attempts to replace bulk materials such as silicon, copper
indium gallium selenide (CIGS) or cadmium telluride (CdTe).
Quantum Dots Sensitized Solar Cell (QDSSC) recently has become a potential
source to provide an alternate way to harvest the solar light for the energy
conservation. Since the quantum confinement effect of the QDs result in unique
optoelectronic properties of the metamaterials, it is playing an important role in
designing of smart photodetectors, light-emiting diodes and solar cell in the recent
years. The semiconductor materials (chalcogenides) have gained a significant
ground for the fabrication of QDSSC. The main advantage is their large industrial
production with tunable band gap, which helps in fabrication of cost-effective, but,
high performance QDSSC devices. The efficiency of QDSSCs depends upon the
fabrication method of QDs, which refers the morphology and physicochemical
properties of the desired material.
Construction of QDSSC's:
i. Working electrode: Fluorinated doped Tin Oxide (SnO2) (FTO) substrate
is taken and coated with mesoporous wide band gap semiconducting TiO 2 .
TiO2 is coated with quantum dots Such as CdS by CBD method (chemical
bath deposition). TiO2 act as electron conductors (or acceptors) and
transport layers. CdS facilitates the charge separation.
ii. Counter electrode: A platinum and carbon based materials are
coated on a brass substrate. Counter electrode is acting as cathode and
it transfers electrons from external circuit to electrolyte and catalyzes the
reduction reaction of the oxidized electrolyte at the electrolyte/ counter
electrode interface.
iii. Electrolyte: Polysulfide is used as electrolyte (S22-/SX2- ). It is a
redox electrolyte or hole conductor. Redox electrolyte significantly
influences both stability and efficiency of QDSSC. It is a medium
which transfer charges between counter electrode and photo anode for
the regeneration of oxidized quantum dots.
iv. Sensitizer: CdS is a sensitizer, it is a Quantum dot nanocrystal made
of semiconductor materials.
Function of QDSSC's
Function of QDSSC's
Applications of QDSSC's:
 QDSSC is mainly used to harness solar energy.
 Potential applications of quantum dots include single-electron transistors, solar
cells,
 LEDs, lasers, single-photon sources, second-harmonic generation, quantum
computing,
 cell biology research, microscopy, and medical imaging.
Advantages of Quantum dot solar cell:
 Favorable power to weight ratio
 High efficiency
 Mass and area savings as well as flexibility leads to miniaturization
 Lower power consumption
 Versatility
 Increased electrical performance at low production costs.
 It can be used in complete buildings including windows and not just rooftops.
1. Define the following a. Sensors b. Actuators c. Transducers
2. What are electrochemical sensors? Explain the working principle and mention their
applications.
3. What are conductomctric sensors? Explain the working principle and mention their
applications.
4. what are optical sensors? Explain the working principle and mention their applicatione
5. What are thermometric sensors? Explain the working principle and mention tha'. applications.
6. Explain the measurement of DO by galvanic sensor.
7. Explain the detection of diclofenac (pharmaceuticals) by SPCE-MCNT-graphene sensor
8. Explain the detection of 1-Hydroxypyrene
9. Explain the detection of SOx and NOx by electrochemical gas sensor.
[Link] the detection of ascorbic acid by disposable screen printed carbon electrodes sensor.
[Link] the detection of glyphosate (pesticides) by disposable electrochemical sensor.
[Link] are primary, secondary and reserve batteries? Explain the classification of batteries with
an example.
[Link] the principle, properties and applications of QDSSC's.
[Link] the construction, working and applications of Li-ion batteries.
[Link] the construction, working and applications of Na-ion batteries
Applications of QDSSC's:
 QDSSC is mainly used to harness solar energy.
 Potential applications of quantum dots include single-electron transistors, solar
cells,
 LEDs, lasers, single-photon sources, second-harmonic generation, quantum
computing,
 cell biology research, microscopy, and medical imaging.
Advantages of Quantum dot solar cell:
 Favorable power to weight ratio
 High efficiency
 Mass and area savings as well as flexibility leads to miniaturization
 Lower power consumption
 Versatility
 Increased electrical performance at low production costs.
 It can be used in complete buildings including windows and not just rooftops.
1. Define the following ( a. Sensors b. Actuators c. Transducers
2. What are electrochemical sensors? Explain the working principle and mention their
applications.
3. What are conductomctric sensors? Explain the working principle and mention their
applications.
4. what are optical sensors? Explain the working principle and mention their applicatione
5. What are thermometric sensors? Explain the working principle and mention tha'. applications.
6. Explain the measurement of DO by galvanic sensor.
7. Explain the detection of diclofenac (pharmaceuticals) by SPCE-MCNT-graphene sensor
8. Explain the detection of 1-Hydroxypyrene
9. Explain the detection of SOx and NOx by electrochemical gas sensor.
[Link] the detection of ascorbic acid by disposable screen printed carbon electrodes sensor.
[Link] the detection of glyphosate (pesticides) by disposable electrochemical sensor.
[Link] are primary, secondary and reserve batteries? Explain the classification of batteries with
an example.
[Link] the principle, properties and applications of QDSSC's.
[Link] the construction, working and applications of Li-ion batteries.
[Link] the construction, working and applications of Na-ion batteries