HUMAN HEALTH AND

DISEASE

Nithina M
PGT
BIOLOGY
HEALT
H
Defined as a state of complete physical, mental and
social well- being of a person.
Healthy people are efficient at work. This increases
productivity and economic prosperity.
Improper functioning of one or more organs or
systems of the body is adversely affected, gives rise
to various signs and symptoms i.e we have disease.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT
HEALTH
Balanced
diet
Personal
hygiene
Regular
exercise
Good habits
HOW TO ACHIEVE GOOD
HEALTH
 ? about diseases, their
Knowledge
cause and effect Vaccination/
immunisation
Control of
vectors Proper
disposal of waste
Consumption of
clean food and
water
Maintenance of
hygiene
Diseas
es
Improper functioning of one or more
organs or systems of the body is
adversely affected, gives rise to various
signs and symptoms i.e we have disease.
Diseases which can easily transmit from
one person to other by any means are
called infectious or communicable
diseases.
Diseases which can not be transmitted
from one person to another are called
non-infectious or non-
communicable diseases.
Disease causing organisms are said to be
INFECTIOUS
DISEASES

Virus -Common cold, polio, measles
Bacteria - Typhoid, pneumonia,
plague, diphtheria, tetanus
Protozoa -Malaria, amoebiasis
Fungi -ringworm
Helminthes -Ascariasis, filariasis,
taeniasis
TYPH
OID
Pathogen: Salmonella typhi (bacterium)
Organs affected: small intestine,
migrate to other organs
through blood.
Method of transmission:
contamination of food and water.
Symptoms:
Sustained high fever (39o to 40o C)
Weakness, stomach pain, constipation,
headache and loss of appetite.
Intestinal perforation and death may
occur.
Test: Typhoid fever could be confirmed by
PNEUMO
NIA:
Pathogen: Streptococcus
pneumoniae and Haemophilus
influenzae.
Organs affected: Alveoli of lungs,
alveoli get filled with
fluid.
Method of transmission: inhaling the
droplets/aerosols released by infected
person. Sharing glasses and other
utensils.
Symptoms:
Fever, chills, cough and headache.
In severe cases the lips and finger nails
turn gray to bluish colour.
COMMON
COLD:
Pathogen: Rhino viruses.
Organs affected: nose and respiratory
passage
Method of transmission:
Direct inhalation of droplets from
infected person.
Through contaminated objects like pen,
books, cups,
computer key board.
Symptoms:
Nasal congestion and discharge, sore
throat, hoarseness,
MALAR
IA:
Pathogen: Plasmodium. (P. vivax, P.
malariae, P. ovale, P. falciparum)
Malignant malaria caused by P.
falciparum is fatal.
Organs affected: liver, RBC.
Method of transmission: by biting
of female anopheles
mosquito (vector)
Symptoms: high fever and chill, fever
occurs on every alternate day,
vomiting.
AMOEBIASIS (Amoebic
dysentery)
Pathogen: Entamoeba histolytica a
protozoan parasite.
Organs affected: large intestine of
man
Method of transmission:
House fly acts as mechanical carrier.
Contamination water and food with
faecal matter.
Symptoms:
Constipation, abdominal pain and
cramps.
Stools with excess mucous and blood
ASCARIA
SIS:
Pathogen: Ascaris lumbricoids
(nematode)
Organs affected: intestine of man
Method of transmission:
Contaminated water, vegetables,
fruits.
Symptoms:
Internal bleeding, muscular pain,
fever, anemia.
Blockage of the intestinal passage.
FILARIASIS OR
ELEPHANTIASIS:
Pathogen: Wuchereria ([Link]
and W. Malayi) (nematode parasite)
Organs affected: lymphatic
vessels of the lower limbs,
genital organs.
Methods of transmission: biting of
infected female culex mosquito.
Symptoms:
Chronic inflammation of the organs where
they live for many years.
Abnormal swelling of lower limb, scrotum,
penis.
Hence the disease named as
RING
WORMS
 Pathogen: Microsporum,Trichophyton and
Epidermophyton (fungi)
 Organs affected: Skin, nails, folds of skin,
groin.
 Method of transmission:
 Acquired from the soil.
 Using towel, clothes or even comb of
infected individuals.
 Symptoms:
 Appearance of dry, scaly lesions in skin nails
and scalp.
 Lesion accompanied with intense itching.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF
INFECTIOUS
DISEASES:
 Maintenance of personal and public hygiene is
very important for prevention and control of
many infectious diseases.
 Personal hygiene includes:
 Consumption of clean drinking water, food
vegetable fruits.
 Keeping the body cleans.

 Public hygiene includes:
 Proper disposal of waste and excreta
 Periodic cleaning and disinfection of water
reservoirs, pools, cesspools.
 Standard practices of hygiene in public catering.

 In case of air-borne diseases, close contact
with the infected persons
For vector borne
diseases
To control or eliminating the vectors and the
breeding places.
Avoiding stagnation of water in and around
residential areas.
Regular cleaning of household coolers.
Use of mosquito nets.
Introducing fishes like Gambusia in pond
that feeds on
mosquito larvae.
Spraying of insecticides in ditches, drainage
area and swamps.
Window and doors must be fitted with wire
mesh.
IMMUNI
TY:
The overall ability of the host to fight
the disease causing organism by
immune system is called immunity.
There are two types of immunity:
Innate Immunity.
Acquired Immunity. Active and Passive
Innate (non-specific)
immunity:
Called inborn immunity.
Always available to protect out body.
This is called the first line of defense.
Consists of various barriers that prevent
entry of foreign agents into the body.
If enters they are quickly killed by some
other components of
this system.
Different types of
barriers
are as follows:
Physical barriers
Skin is the main barrier which prevents
entry of micro- organism.
Mucous coating of the epithelium lining
of respiratory, gastrointestinal and
urinogenital tracts helps in trapping
microbes.
Physiological barriers:
Acidity of the stomach kills most
ingested microbes.
Lysozyme in tears, saliva, and snot kills
bacteria by
digesting bacterial wall.
Pyrogen released by WBC raise body
temperature to prevents growth of
microbes in out body.
Interferon induces antiviral state in
non-infected cells.
Phagocytic barrier:
Polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes
Inflammatory barrier
When there is injury to the tissue
there is release of histamine and
prostaglandins by the mast cells.
Due to vasodilation there is leakage
of vascular fluid containing serum
proteins with antibacterial activity.
Further there is influx of Phagocytic
cells into the affected
area.
Acquired (specific)
immunity:
It is also known as adaptive immunity.
This immunity developed after birth
when encountered with pathogen.
It supplements the immunity
provided by the innate immunity.
Acquired immunity has following unique
features:
Specificity: distinguish specific foreign
molecules.
Diversity: recognize vast variety of foreign
molecules.
Discrimination between self and non-
self: it is able to recognize and respond to
molecules that are foreign or non-self. It will
not respond to our own cell or molecules.
Memory: after responding to the foreign
microbes and elimination, this immune
system retains the memory of that
encounter (primary immune response).
Acquired immunity is carried out by two
special types of lymphocytes:
B-lymphocytes.
T-lymphocytes.


The B-lymphocytes produce a group of
proteins in response to pathogen into the
blood to fight with them calledantibody.
T-lymphocytes do not produce antibody
but help B-cells to
produce them
 Structure of
antibody:
Each antibody has
four
polypeptide chains.
Two small chains
called light chains.
Two longer chains
called heavy
chains.
Antibody
represented as
H2L2.
Different classes of
AMI vs.
CMI:
 Immune response by the B-cells by
production of antibody is called Antibody
mediated immune responseor humoral
immune response.
 Immune response by T-cells is by activation of
cytotoxic killer cells which detects and
destroys the foreign cells and also cancerous
cells called cell mediated immune
response.
 Rejection of organs transplants are due to T-
lymphocytes.
 Tissue matching, blood group matching are
essential for organ transplantation.
 Even after tissue typing immune-
Active
immunity:
When the host is exposed to antigens,
which may be in the form of living or dead
microbes or other proteins, antibodies are
produced in the host body.
Active immunity is slow and takes
time to give its full effective
response.
Injecting microbes deliberately during
immunization or
infection of microbes naturally induce
active immunity.
Passive
immunity:
Ready made antibodies are directly given
to protect the body against foreign agents.
Colostrums of mother contain
abundant antibody (IgA) to protect
the child.
Foetus receives some antibody (IgG)
from mother during
pregnancy
Vaccination and
Immunization:
The principle of immunization or
vaccination is based on the property of
‘memory, of the immune system.
In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic
protein of pathogen or
inactivated/weakened pathogen (vaccine)
is introduced into the body.
The antibodies produced in the body
against vaccine, (antigen) would
neutralize the pathogenic agents
during actual infection.
The vaccines also generate memory B
and T-cells that
Passive
immunization:
Preformed antibody or antitoxin
injection for specific antigen.
Injection of antivenin for snake bite to
counter the snake venom
Vaccine
production:
Recombinant DNA technology has allowed
the production of antigenic polypeptide of
pathogen in bacteria and yeast.
Vaccine produced by this approach
allows large scale production of antigen
for immunization. E.g. hepatitis- B
produced from yeast.
Allergi
es:
 The exaggerated response of the immune
system to certain antigens present in the
environment is calledallergy.
 The substance to which such immune
response is produced
is allergen.
 IgE is produced during allergic reactions.
 Common allergens are dust, pollen,
animal dander etc.
 Common symptoms are sneezing, watery
eyes, running nose etc.
 Allergy is due to release of histamine and
serotonin from the mast cells.
 Auto
immunity:
 Memory based acquired immunity able to distinguish foreign
molecules or cells (pathogen) from self-cells.
 Sometimes due to genetic and other unknown reasons the body
attacks self [Link] results in damage to the body cells and is
called auto-immune disease. E.g. Rheumatoid arthritis,
Multiple sclerosis
 Immune system in our body:
 The immune system consists of
 Lymphoid organs
 Lymphoid tissues
 T and B-cells.
 Antibodies.

 Immune system recognizes the foreign antigens, responds
to them and remembers them.
 The immune system also plays important role in:
 Allergic reaction
 Auto immuno diseases and
 Organ transplantation.
 Primary lymphoid organs: bone marrow
and
thymus, production and maturation of
lymphocytes take
place.
 Secondary lymphoid organs: spleen,
tonsil, lymph node, Payer’s patches of
small intestine and appendix,
where proliferation and differentiation of
lymphocyte take place.
 Bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ
where all blood cell
including lymphocytes are produced.
 Thymus is a bilobed organ located near the
heart, beneath the breastbone.
 B-lymphocytes are produced and matured in
bone marrow.
 The spleen
 Large bean shaped organ mainly contain lymphocytes
and phagocytes.
 Acts as a filter of the blood by trapping blood-borne
micro-organisms.
 Spleen is also serves as the large reservoir of
erythrocytes.

 Lymph node:
 Small solid structure located at different points along the
lymphatic system.
 Traps the micro-organisms or other foreign antigens.
 Antigen trapped into the lymph node
responsible for activation and differentiation of
lymphocytes and cause immune response.

 Mucosal associated lymphoid tissues
(MALT):
AID
S:
 Stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency
Syndrome.
 Deficiency of immune system that acquired
during life time and
not congenital disease.
 Syndrome means a group of symptoms.
 AIDS was first reported in 1981.
 AIDS is caused by HIV (Human Immuno
deficiency Virus)
 HIV is retrovirus, having RNA as the genetic
material.
 Method of transmission:
 Sexual contact with infected persons.
 Transfusion of contaminated blood and blood
products.
 Life cycle of
HIV:
 After getting into the body the HIV enters into
macrophages orT- helper cells.
 The viral RNA genome replicated to form viral
DNA with the enzyme
called reverse transcriptase.
 The viral DNA gets incorporated into the host
cell’s DNA by an enzyme called integrase, and
directs the infected cell s to produce virus
particle.
 The macrophage continues to produce virus and
acts as HIV factory.
 Virus released from macrophage attack T-helper
cells.
 There is progressive reduction in the number of
T-helper cells.
 Due to reduction of T-helper cells the person
Diagnosis:
ELISA (enzyme linked Immuno-
sorbent assay) Prevention of AIDS:
AIDS has no cure, prevention is the
best option.
Safe blood for transfusion
Use of disposable needles
Free distribution of condoms.
Prevention of drug abuse
Advocating safe sex and promoting
regular checkup.
 CANC
ER
 Uncontrolled cell division leads to production of mass of
cell called cancer.
 Cancerous cell lost the property of contact inhibition.
 Cancerous cell just continue to divide giving rise to
masses of cell called tumors.

 Benign tumors:
 Normally remain confined to their original location
 Do not spread to other location.
 Cause little damage.

 Malignant tumors:
 Mass of proliferating cells called neoplastic or tumor cells.
 These cells grow very rapidly.
 Invade and damage surrounding tissues.
 These cells actively divide and grow; they also starve the normal
cells.
 Cancerous cells escape from the site of origin and moves to
Causes of
cancer:
 Normal cells transformed into cancerous
neoplastic cells by physical, chemical and
biological [Link] agents are called
carcinogen.
Physical agents: ionizing radiation like X-
rays, gamma rays non-ionizing radiations
like UV-rays.
Chemical agents: Tobacco smoke, sodium
azaide, Methyl
ethane sulphonate.
Biological agents:
Cancer causing viruses called oncogenic
viruses have a gene called viral oncogenes,
induce transformation of neoplastic cells.
Cancer detection and
diagnosis
 Biopsy and histopathological study of the
tissues
 Radiography like X-rays, CT (computerized
tomography)
 MRI (magnetic resonance Imaging).
 Presence of antibodies against cancer-
specific antigen.
Tretment of cancer
 Surgery
 Radiation therapy
 Immunotherapy
 Chemotherapy
 Cryosurgery
 Laser therapy.
 DRUGS AND ALCOHOL
ABUSE:
Opioid
The drugs which bind to specific opioid
receptor present incentral nervous
system and gastrointestinal tract.
Heroin commonly called
smack,
chemicallydiacetylmor
phine.
It is white, odourless,
bitter crystalline
compound.
Obtained by
Canabino
ids
 Group of chemicals that interact with the
canabinoid receptors of brain.
Obtained from inflorescence of Cannabis
sativa.
Flower top, leaves and resin of cannabis
plant are used in various combinations
to produce marijuana, hashish,
charas and ganja.
Generally taken by inhalation and oral
ingestion
Effects on cardiovascular system of
the body.
Cocai
ne
 Coca alkaloid or cocaine is obtained from coca plant
Erythroxylum coca.
 It interferes with transport of neuro-transmitter
dopamine.
 Cocaine is commonly called as coke or crack is
usually snorted.
 Potent stimulating effect on central nervous system.
 Produces sense of euphoria and increased energy.
 Excessive dosage causes hallucination.

 Other plants with hallucinogenic properties are :
 Atropa belladonna
 Datura.

 Canabinoids are also being abused by some
sportspersons.
Medicinal use of drugs
Barbiturates, amphetamines,
benzodiazepines, lysergic acid diethyl
amide (LSD) used as medicines to help
patients cope with mental illnesses,
depression and insomnia.
Morphine is a very effective sedative and
painkiller used for surgery patient
Plant product with hallucinogenic property
have used as folk-
medicine, religious ceremonies and
rituals.
 Tobac
Itco
is smoked, chewed or used as a snuff.
Tobacco contains nicotine an alkaloid.
Nicotine stimulates Adrenal glands to raise
blood pressure and increased heart rates.
Smoking tobacco is associated with
cancer of lung, urinary bladder, and
throat, bronchitis, emphysema, coronary
heart disease, gastric ulcer etc.
Smoking increased CO content of blood
reduce oxygen carrying capacity of
hemoglobin.
Tobacco chewing is associated with cancer of
Adolescence and Drug/Alcohol
Abuse:
The period between 12-18 years of age
may thought of an adolescent period.
Adolescent is a bridge linking childhood
and adulthood.
Curiosity, need for adventure and
excitement, and experimentation, are
the common cause of drug/alcohol
abuse.
 Addiction and dependence:
 Addiction is a psychological attachment to
certain effects such as euphoria and a
temporary feeling of well-being associated
with drugs and alcohol.
 With repeated use of drugs the tolerance level
of the receptors present in our body increases.
Consequently the receptors respond only to
higher doses of drugs or alcohol leading to
greater intake and addiction.
 Use of drugs even once, can be a fore-runner to
addiction.
 Dependence is the tendency of the body to
manifest a characteristic and unpleasant
withdrawal syndrome if regular dose of
drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued.
 Effects of Drug / Alcohol Abuse:
 Immediate effects are reckless behavior, vandalism and
violence.
 Excessive doses of drugs may lead to coma and death due
to respiratory failure, heart
failure or cerebral hemorrhage.
 Warning sign of drug and alcohol abuse among youth
include:
 Drop in academic performance,
 Unexplained absence from school/college.
 Lack of interest in personal hygiene
 Withdrawal, isolation, depression fatigue, aggressive and rebellious
behavior.
 Deterioting relationship with family and friends.
 Loss of interest in hobbies.
 Change in eating and sleeping habits.
 Fluctuation in weight and appetite.

 Intravenous drug user more prone to acquire infections like
AIDS and hepatitis.
 Prevention and
control:
Avoid undue peer pressure.
 Education and counseling.
 Seeking help from parents
and peers.
 Looking for danger signs.
 Seeking professional and
 medical
PMNL [Link]-Nuclear
 Abbreviations:
: Leukocytes Cell
 CMI : Mediated
 ELISA Immunity
: Enzyme Linked Immuno
 HLA : sorbent Assay Human
 MALT Leukocyte Antigen
: Mucosal Associated
 SCID : Lymphoid Tissue Severe
 NACO Combined Immuno
: