Sports Nutrition and Weight
Control
Energy Systems for
Exercise
Human Energy Systems
ATP-PC System
• adenosine triphosphate
• phosphocreatine
Lactic Acid System
• anaerobic glycolytic pathway
Oxygen System
• aerobic metabolic pathways
ATP-PC Energy System
ATP – Energy for muscle
contraction
ATP-PC System
ATP
highest rate of energy production
lowest total energy capacity
all energy for muscle contraction
must flow through ATP
ATP-PC System
Phosphocreatine
Rapid equilibrium with ATP/ADP
Highest rate of energy production
Lowest total energy production
Creatine as an Ergogenic Aid
Claims for creatine
(monohydrate)
• EAS web page (2002)
“...may boost muscle size and
strength, increase lean body
mass, delay fatigue, and speed
muscle recovery after exercise.”
Creatine as an Ergogenic Aid
Creatine Loading Protocol
25-30 grams/day for 3-5 days
3-5 grams/day for maintenance
or 3-5 grams/day for gradual loading
typical dietary creatine = 1g/d
cost (EAS Phosphagen, 3/02)
• $16 for loading
• $36 per month for maintenance ($432/yr)
Is Creatine an Erogenic Aid?
Levels
of evidence for
ergogenic effects
1.
Is there a sound hypothetical
mechanism explaining potential
ergogenic effects?
Levels of evidence for
ergogenic effects
2. Are there biochemical
indicators that suggest
ergogenic effects?
3. Are there studies that
demonstrate improvement of
physical performance?
Creatine as an Ergogenic Aid
Theoretical Basis
creatine phosphate levels limit ATP
production during maximal exercise
Therefore, supplementation will
increase cellular CP levels and
increase high intensity performance
Creatine as an Ergogenic Aid
Biochemical evidence
supplementation of creatine does
result in increased muscle creatine
concentration
• 16% increase in muscle creatine after
6 day @ 20g/d
– Hultman et al, JAP 81:232-237 (1996)
Creatine as an Ergogenic Aid
Scientific Performance Evidence
Ideal investigation:
• RCT: Randomized Controlled Trials
– double blind - placebo trials
typically increases muscle Cr
typically results in increased LBM
• 0.7-1.6kg
• water or protein ?
• may impair performance
Creatine supplementation enhances muscular
performance during high-intensity resistant exercise.
JADA 97:765-770 (1997)
14 active men
• randomized, double blind w/ placebo
• 25g Cr/day for 6 days
• Tested on three occasions
– Before supplementation
– After 6 days of placebo capsule supplementation
– After 6 days of either placebo or creatine capsule
supplementation
• bench press (5 sets of 10 reps to failure)
• squat exercise (5 sets of 10 reps to failure)
A. The placebo effect:
by set 4 & 5, athletes
taking placebo after
T2 and T3 have more
repetitions.
B. The creatine effect:
by set 3, 4, & 5, athletes
consuming Cr perform
better than pre-supp (T1)
or placebo (T2)
A. Placebo effect only seen
in set 2
B. Creatine improves jump-
squat peak power output
in all sets over pre-supp
period (T1) and over
placebo (T2) in sets 1, 2,
3, & 4
Creatine supplementation enhances muscular
performance during high-intensity resistant exercise.
JADA 97:765-770 (1997)
Conclusion:
• One week of creatine supplementation
(25g/d) enhances muscular performance
during repeated sets of bench press and
jump squat exercise.
Creatine supplementation does not improve sprint
performance in competitive swimmers.
MSSE 28:1435-1441(1996)
28 trained competitive swimmers
• randomized, double-blind placebo trials
• 5 days 20g creatine/day or placebo
• 25, 50, 100 meter trials, best stroke
Results
• no significant differences in performance
times between trials or groups
• no effect of Cr on post-exercise blood lactate
Creatine as an Ergogenic Aid
Many, but not all studies
show increases in power
output
generally seen in high
power, repetitive exercise
tests
Creatine as an Ergogenic Aid
No (?) long term safety tests
• No consistent reports of
adverse affects
Few studies with
adolescents
Recommendations?
ACSN Consensus Statement
Creatine Supplementation
MSSE March 2000
Oral Cr increases muscle C~P
3g/d over time = 20g/d loading
“Exercise performance involving short
periods of extremely powerful activity
can be enhanced, especially during
repeated bouts of activity.”
ACSN Consensus Statement
Creatine Supplementation
“There is no definitive evidence that Cr
supplementation causes GI, renal, and/or
muscle cramping”
“…Cr exhibits small but significant
physiological and performances changes…
are realized during very specific exercise
conditions”
“”…apparent high expectations…are
inordinant.”
Creatine as an Ergogenic Aid
Miscellaneous information
Creatine kinase
• ineffective as oral supplement
• blood levels indicate muscle damage
Creatinine
• waste product of creatine metabolism
• blood levels reflect renal function
• urine levels reflect
– Total muscle mass
– Dietary intake of creatine
CK
Dietary Supplements as Ergogenic Aids:
Let the Buyer Beware!
Dietary Supplement Health Education Act
(DSHEA)
Labeling of dietary supplements follow same
laws as for foods (NLEA).
• Only approved health claims allowed
• “structure/function” claims allowed
Unlike pharmaceutical drug regulations
• No proof of safety required
• No proof of effectiveness required
• No effective regulation of product contents or purity
Dietary Supplements:
The NFL Player’s Association Recommendation
[Link]
As the Policy clearly warns, supplements are not regulated or
monitored by the government. This means that, even if they
are bought over-the-counter from a known establishment, there
is simply no way to be sure that they:
• (a) contain the ingredients listed on the packaging;
(b) have not been tainted with prohibited substances; or
(c) have the properties or effects claimed by the manufacturer or
salesperson.
Therefore, if you take these products, you do so AT YOUR
OWN RISK! The risk is at least a 4-game suspension without
pay if a prohibited substance is detected in your system. For
your own health and success in the League, we strongly
encourage you to avoid the use of supplements altogether, or at
the very least to be extremely careful about what you choose to
take.
NCAA: Permissible Nutritional Supplements
NCAA Bylaw [Link] (2000) (web page link)
Supplements NCAA institutions can provide to
athletes
• Non-muscle building nutritional supplements
– Vitamins and minerals
– Energy bars
– Calorie replacement drinks (Ensure, Boost)
– Electrolyte replacement drinks (Gatorade, Powerade)
Non-Permissible
• creatine
• Amino acids
• Carnitine
• Protein-powders and others
Lactic Acid System
Anaerobic glycolysis
Uses muscle glycogen, blood
glucose, liver glycogen as substrates
(not FAT or PRO)
High rate of ATP energy production
Primary fuel in sprint-type activities (a
few seconds - few minutes)
Lactic Acid System
Important when:
Activity longer than a few seconds
• creatine-P depleted/limited
Activity too intense for aerobic metabolism
• oxygen delivery limited
– limited rate of O2 :
• uptake in lung
• transport and delivery to muscle cell
• transport and delivery to mitochondria
Lactic Acid System
Lactic acid is the end product
Low total energy capacity
• lactic acidosis
• Inhibits glycolytic enzymes
Training effects
• improved aerobic capacity reducing lactate
production
• improved removal of lactate
Ergogenic aids
• bicarbonate loading
Oxygen Energy System
Oxygen Energy Systems
Aerobic carbohydrate
metabolism
• glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport
system
lower rate of ATP energy production
high total energy capacity
primary source of energy for higher
intensity endurance events (~< 30 min)
09.06 Aerobic Respiration Overview
Slide number: 2
Glucose
Plasma
membrane Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
Extracellular fluid
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
09.06 Aerobic Respiration Overview
Slide number: 4
Glucose Glycolysis Pyruvate
ATP
NADH
Acetyl-CoA
NADH
Plasma
membrane Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
Extracellular fluid
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
09.06 Aerobic Respiration Overview
Slide number: 6
Glucose Glycolysis Pyruvate
ATP
NADH
Acetyl-CoA
NADH
H2O
Krebs ATP
cycle
NADH tem
ys
ns p ort s
on t ra
Plasma Electr
membrane Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
ATP
Extracellular fluid
CO2 O2
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Oxygen Energy Systems
Fat oxidation
• Beta-oxidation, Krebs cycle, Electron
transport system
Lowest rate of ATP-energy production
Highest total energy capacity
Primary source of energy during lower
intensity endurance events (~>30 min)
Oxygen Energy Systems
Protein oxidation
• Amino acid oxidation, Krebs cycle, Electron
transport system
Low rate of ATP-energy production
Limited total energy capacity
significant source of energy during long
endurance events
% Contribution of Aerobic and
Anaerobic Energy Sources
Human Energy Stores
Sources of energy for energy systems
ATP-PC
Carbohydrates
• Muscle glycogen
• Blood glucose
• Liver glycogen
Human Energy Stores
Fats - Triglycerides
• Adipose triglycerides
• Muscle triglyceride
Hormone sensitive lipase
• Activity enhanced with caffeine
Ketone bodies
• partially oxidized fatty acids
• produced in liver, burned in muscle
• significant source of energy during prolonged
endurance exercise
Human Energy Stores
Proteins
directmuscle oxidation
(branched chain amino acids)
gluconeogenesis in liver from
amino acids
Exercise Energy Metabolism:
Examples of experimental
data
Exercise Energy Metabolism:
Examples of
experimental data
Example 1:
Metabolic Fuels During
Intense Exhaustive Exercise
3 one minute sprints with one
minute rest
muscle needle biopsy
• prior to
• 15 sec post-exhaustion (exhaustion)
• 30 minutes post-exhaustion
(recovery)
Example 1:
Metabolic Fuels During
Intense Exhaustive Exercise
ATP PC
(umol/g) (umol/g)
initial 4.6 17
exhaustion 3.4 3.7
recovery 4.0 18.8
Example 1:
Metabolic Fuels During
Intense Exhaustive Exercise
Glycogen Lactate
initial 88 ug/g 1.1 umol/g
exhausted 58 30.5
recovery 70 6.5
Key Points
In repeated one minute sprints
• Lactic acid system primary source of fuel
• [lactic acid] increases 30-fold resulting in
lactic acidosis
• ATP & C~P are regenerated quickly after
exercise
• Elevated lactate seen 30 minutes after
exercise
Example 2:
Glycogen Utilization During
Endurance Exercise
Protocol
• Trained and untrained runners
• Treadmill running at ~ 70% VO2 max
• Run to exhaustion
• Measure muscle glycogen content every
20 minutes until exhaustion
Example 2:
Glycogen Utilization During
Endurance Exercise
Minutes Glycogen Glycogen
exercise (untrained) (trained)
0 94 (umol/g) 100 (umol/g)
20 39 55
40 22 39
60 11 14
80 0.6 (exhausted) 11
90 0.2 (exhausted)
Key Points
Glycogen primary source of fuel in
exercise lasting 60-90 minutes
Glycogen depletion associated with
fatigue
Rate of glycogen utilization rate higher
early in exercise, lower late in exercise
Utilization of glycogen lower in trained
athletes
Example 3:
Glycogen Degradation Rate During
Exercise
Protocol
• Trained and untrained subjects
• Treadmill running at different % VO2 max
• Muscle biopsies to determine rate of
muscle glycogen utilization
Example 3:
Glycogen Degradation Rate During
Exercise
80
70
60
glycogen degradation rate
50
Trained
40
Untrained
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
% VO2 m ax
Key Points
Rate of glycogen utilization directly
related to intensity of exercise
Trained athletes utilize glycogen at
lower rates than untrained subjects at
same relative %VO2
• More efficient delivery of oxygen and
mobilization/oxidation of stored fats.
Example 4:
Effect of Glycogen Level on Rating of
Perceived Exertion
Protocol
• Trained runners
• Treadmill test at %70% of VO2max
• Muscle biopsies for glycogen determination
• RPE evaluation
Key Points
Glycogen utilization rate highest early in
exercise
Muscle glycogen concentration
inversely related to rating of perceived
exertion
Example 5:
Effect of Initial Muscle Glycogen Levels
and Endurance
Protocol
• Fed trained athletes diets for 4 days
either
– Low (10%)
– Moderate (50%)
– high carbohydrate (85%)diets
• Treadmill running at 65% VO2max
• Muscle biopsy for glycogen analysis
prior to treadmill run
Example 5:
Effect of Initial Muscle Glycogen Levels and
Endurance
200
180
High carb diet
160
140
120
Time to exhaustion (min)
100 Moderate carb diet
80
60
Low carb diet
40
20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
initial muscle glycogen (g/100g)
Key Points
Initial Glycogen Levels and Endurance
During treadmill running, time to
exhaustion is correlated with initial
muscle glycogen content
Muscle glycogen content is affected by
diet
• High carb diets promote glycogen storage
Example 6a:
Muscle Glycogen and Soccer Performance
(Agnevik, 1970)
1.2
0.8
mg glycogen/100g
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Pre-game Half-time Post-game
Example 6b:
Muscle Glycogen and Soccer Performance
Saltin, 1973
14000
12000
10000
8000 Walking
time (seconds)
Running
6000 Total
4000
2000
0
High Glycogen Low Glycogen
Key Points
Diet and Soccer Performance
Glycogen depletion is possible during
soccer play
Initial glycogen content affects time
spent running and total active time
• High glycogen allows for more running and
total activity during soccer games
Example 7:
Effect of Successive Days of Intense Training on
Glycogen Content
Costill & Miller (1980)
Trained endurance runners
3 successive days of running 10 miles
at 80% of VO2 max
Dietary intake of CHO
• 58% of Calories
• 70% of Calories
Example 7:
Effect of Successive Days of Intense Training on
Glycogen Content
Costill & Miller (1980)
140
120
100
Muscle glycogen (mmol/kg ww)
80
High CHO
Low CHO
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Tim e (hours)
Key Points:
Effect of Successive Days of Intense Training on
Glycogen Content
Glycogen depletion can occur with
successive days of intense training
• Even when individual training day is not
glycogen depleting
High carbohydrate diets promote
replacement of glycogen used during
exercise
• Helps prevent glycogen depletion during
successive days of training
Metabolic Causes of Fatigue During
Exercise.
Table 3.9 (Williams)
Decreased Levels of Energy
Substrates
decreased phosphocreatine levels
decreased muscle glycogen
decreased blood glucose
• hypoglycemia
Metabolic Causes of Fatigue During
Exercise.
Table 3.9 (Williams)
Decreased Levels of Energy Substrates
(cont.)
decreased blood branch-chain amino acids
• Significant source of energy for muscle during endurance
exercise
• Central Fatigue Hypothesis (increased formation of
depressant neurotransmitters)
– Decreased blood BCAA during exercise
– Increase blood tryptophan:BCAA ratio
– Shared blood:brain barrier transport system
– Increased brain tryptophan
– Increased synthesis of serotonin from tryptophan
– Increased feeling of fatigue
Metabolic Causes of Fatigue
During Exercise.
Disturbed Acid-Base Balance
• lactic acidosis
Decreased Oxygen Transport
• decreased blood volume due to
dehydration
• High altitudes
• Nutritional anemias
Metabolic Causes of Fatigue
During Exercise.
Increased
Core Body
Temperature
• dehydration
• environmental conditions
Disturbed Electrolyte Balance
• high sweat loss
• no electrolyte replacement