Module 2
BRM
Research Process
1. Formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Development of a working hypothesis
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collection of data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of data
9. Testing hypothesis
10. Generalization and interpretation
[Link] of report
[Link] THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Research planning helps design a research plan. Which consist of
the information related to the process of implementing a research.
Organizations designs research plan to gain knowledge about the
market value of their products, services and program. More
effective and efficient the research plan the shorter is the time to
complete the research. An efficient plan must focus on the main
objective of the research.
DEFINING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Research problems are questions that indicates gap in the scope or
the certainty of our knowledge. They point either to the problematic
phenomenon observed events that are plugging in the terms of the
accepted ideas or to problematic theories, current ideas that are
challenged by the new hypothesis.
The first and most important step in the process is to identifying the
path of enquiry in the form of research problem.
Problem definition involves
1- Discussion with the decision maker
2- Interviews with industry experts such as focus groups.
Once the problem has been preciously defined the research can be
designed and conducted properly.
PROCESS INVOLVED IN DEFNITION OF PROBLEM
1- Statement of problem in general way
2- Understanding the nature of problem
3- Surveying the available literature
4- Developing ideas through decision
5- Refreezing the research problem
CRITERIA FOR AGOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM
1- Clear and un ambiguous
2- Empirical
3- Verifiable
4- Interesting
5- Newel and original
6- Availability of guidance
HOW TO CONDUCT A LITERATURE SURVEY
1- Identify the relevant sources
2- Extract and record relevant information
3- Write up the literature review
SOURCES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
1- Books and journals
2- Electronic data base
HOW TO WRITE A REVIEW OF LITERATURE
1- Read relevant literature
2- Refer original work
3- Read with comprehension
4- Read in time
5- Index the literature
3- FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis is an assumption about relationship between
variables. It is defined as “logical constructed relationship
between two or more variables expressed in the form of testable
statement”. A variable is a characteristics that takes on two or
more values where areas an attribute is a specific value on
variable
TYPES OF VARIABLE
1- Explanatory and extraneous variable (the variable selected for
analysis are explanatory variable and all other variable that are
not related to the purpose of study but may affect the dependant
variable are extraneous variable)
2- Dependant and independent variable ( the variable that
changes in relationship to changes in another variable is called
dependant variable. The variable whose change results in the
change in another variable is called an independent variable.
Hypothesis must contain at least one independent variable and
dependent variable)
FEATURES OF HYPOTHESIS
1- Conceptual clarity should be clear and precise
2- Specificity
3- Consistency
4- Testability
5- Expectancy
6- Simplicity
7- Objectivity
8- Theoretical relevance
9- Availability of techniques
SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS
1- Discussion with colleagues and experts about the problem
2- Examination of data and records for possible trends
3- Review of similar studies
4- Explanatory, personal investigation and observation
5- Logical deduction from existing theory
6- Continuity of research
7- Intuition and personal experience
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
1- Descriptive hypothesis (these assumptions that describes the feature of
variable. The variable may be an object, person, organization, event etc)
2- Relational hypothesis( these are the assumptions that describes the
relationships between two variable the relationship suggested may be
positive or negative or casual relationships)
3- Null hypothesis( when a hypothesis is negatively it is called null
hypothesis. There are no differences and no relationships among variables.
The hypothesis that are proposed with the intent of receiving a rejection fo
them is called null hypothesis)
4- Alternative hypothesis( rejection of null hypothesis leads to the
acceptance of alternative hypothesis)
STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS GENERATION
1- Preliminary research
2- Write your hypothesis
3- Test it against the criteria in step two
RESEARCH DESIGN
It is the blue print of the study. The design of the study defines the study
type and subtype, research question,hypothesis , independent and
dependent variable, experimental design, and if applicable data
collection, methods and statistical analysis plan. The research design is
the framework that has been created to seek answers to research
question.
Definition
1. "It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data" -Philips Bernard S
2. It "provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to
follow" -Best John N
3. "The design research from controlling general scientific model into
varied research procedure"- P.V. Young
4. "A research design is "the programme that guides the investigator in
the process of collecting, analysis and interpreting observations". -
David and Shava
Features of Research Design
a) It is a plan that specifies the objectives of study and the hypothesis
to be tested.
b) It is an outline that specifies the sources and types of information
relevent to the research question.
c) It is a blueprint specifying the methods to be adopted for gathering
and analysis of data.
d) It is a scheme defining the procedure involved in a research process.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
[Link] research design
[Link] research design
[Link] research design
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[Link] Research Design
[Link] research
Explanatory research design is a research approach used
to understand the underlying reasons or causes behind a
phenomenon or the relationships between variables. It
aims to explain "why" something happens or how
variables influence each other, moving beyond simply
describing a phenomenon to establish causal
relationships.
[Link] research design
Descriptive Research Design focuses on providing a
detailed and comprehensive description of a situation,
phenomenon, or case within a research study. This
design is primarily theoretical, where the researcher
collects data, analyzes it, and presents the findings in an
easily understandable format. It is one of the most
generalized forms of research design, as it aims to
explore one or more variables without manipulating
them.
In Descriptive Research Design, the researcher does
not alter or control any variables, unlike in
experimental research. Instead, the researcher observes
and measures the variables as they naturally occur.
While qualitative research can also be used for
descriptive purposes, this approach is generally
classified as a form of quantitative research. To ensure
the results are reliable and valid, the research design
should be well-structured and carefully executed.
[Link] Research Design
Correlational research design is a type of non-
experimental research method used to examine the
relationships between two or more variables. It
involves observing and measuring variables as they
naturally occur, without any manipulation or
intervention by the researcher. The goal is to identify
the nature and strength of the association between
variables, but it doesn't establish cause-and-effect
relationships.
[Link] research design
Experimental research design is a systematic approach to
conducting research where researchers manipulate one
or more independent variables to observe their effect on
a dependent variable, while controlling other variables to
establish cause-and-effect relationships. It involves
creating a testable hypothesis, identifying relevant
variables, and using methods like random assignment to
minimize bias and ensure validity of results.
[Link] Research Design
Diagnostic research design is a type of research design that
tries to investigate the underlying cause of a certain
condition or phenomenon. It can assist you in learning more
about the elements that contribute to certain difficulties or
challenges that your clients may be experiencing. This
design typically consists of three research stages, which are
as follows:
• Inception of the issue
• Diagnosis of the issue
• Solution for the issue
Sample Survey
Sampling may be( defined
Samplingas the )-
process of obtaining
information about an entire population by examining
only a part of it. The representative part is called a
sample- Sample reveals the characteristics of the
universe-It is based on the Law of Statistical
Regularity-Eg,if we want to know the average height of
students of a particular college, it is sufficient if the
required measurements are taken from a few students,
selected at random-The average height revealed by
sample enquiry will not be materially different from the
average height revealed by the census enquiry
Theoretical basis of
Sampling
There are two important principles on which the theory of
sampling is based—
[Link] of statistical regularity and
[Link] of inertia of large numbers-
[Link] of statistical regularity
It derived from the mathematical theory of probability. In the
words of King “the law of statistical regularity” lays down that
a moderately large number of items chosen at random from a
large group are almost sure on the average to possess the
characteristic of that group—In other words the principle states
that if a sample is taken at random from a population, it is likely
to possess the same characteristics of that population--
[Link] of inertia of large numbers
States that large numbers are relatively more stable than
small numbers eg-production of wheat in India may vary
slightly over a period of years. But the total world
production of wheat remains relatively stable for decades
—thus large numbers have great inertia.
Sample Design
Is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given
population—it refers to the procedure adopted by a
researcher for selecting items for a sample-it suggests
how many items are to be included in the sample—gives
an idea about the size of the sample-
Steps in Sample
design
• Determine the size of population ( define the
objects to be studied-whether it is finite or infinite,
existent or hypothetical etc )-
• Decidindg the sample units– sampling units
may be
[Link] units like a State, a region, a district, a city
etc
[Link] units like a building, house, flat etc
3. Social groups like a family, a school, club, church ,an
individual.
• Selecting sampling frame—is the list
containing all items in the population-It is from the
sampling frame that the items are selected to form the
sample- all the items of the universe must be there in
the sampling frame-
• Determining the sample size—For a logical
and meaningful sample survey, the sample size should
be adequate-
• Determining the parameters
• Selecting a sampling techniques---
Can be grouped under two heads
[Link] sampling ( probability sampling) and
[Link] Random sampling ( non probability sampling).
Classification of
Sampling
[Link] Sampling Techniques
• Simple Random Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
• Stratified Sampling
• Cluster Sampling
• Other Probability Sampling Techniques
[Link] probability Sampling Techniques
• Convenience Sampling
• Judgmental Sampling
• Quota Sampling
• Snowball Sampling
Probability
Sampling
In this method each item has its own chance for being
selected—it may be simple random sampling and
complex random sampling---Stratified
sampling,systematic sampling and cluster sampling are
known as complex random sampling designs. In
probability sampling we can measure the errors of
[Link] it ensures the law of statistical
regularity-This is why probability sampling is
considered as the best technique of selecting
representative sample-
A simple random sample
It is a sample selected from a population in such a way
that every member of the population has an equal chance
of being selected and the selection of any individual
does not influence the selection of any other– selection
purely depends on chance-So personal bias of the
investigator will not present in the sample selected----
Random samples may be selected
a) by lottery method b) Table of random numbers
( Tippet’s randum number tables, Fisher and Yates
tables, Kendell & BB Smith tables etc )
Merit of simple random sampling—
• No possibility of personal bias
• Usually represent population when the samples size
is large.
• Accuracy can be easily assessed
• Ensures the law of statistical regularity.
Demerits
• If size of sample is small, results may not be
reliable
Stratified Random
sampling
• A two-step process in which the population is partitioned
into sub populations, or strata.
• The elements within a stratum should be as
homogeneous as possible, but the elements in different
strata should be as heterogeneous as possible.
• The stratification variables should also be closely related
to the characteristic of interest.
• Elements are selected from each stratum by a random
procedure, usually Simple Random Sampling.
Merit-
• More representative than simple random sample
ensures more accuracy
Demerit
• If properly not conducted, will have effect of
bias-If stratum are not homogeneous, results may
not be reliable
Systematic
sampling
Popularly used in those cases where complete list of the
population from which sample is to be drawn is
available– relatively simple technique and may be more
efficient than simple random sampling—time and works
involved are relatively smaller-
The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point
and picking every ith element in succession from the
sampling frame-The sampling interval, i, is determined by
dividing the population size N by the sample size n and
rounding to the nearest integer.
Cluster sampling
• The target population is first divided into different clusters
in which the elements within the cluster are as
heterogeneous as possible, but clusters themselves should
be as homogeneous as possible. Ideally, each cluster should
be a small-scale representation of the population. .
• Then a random sample of clusters is selected, based on a
probability sampling technique such as SRS.
• For each selected cluster, either all the elements are
included in the sample (one-stage) or a sample of elements
is drawn probabilistically (two-stage )
Non-Probability
sampling
Non-Probability sampling is that sampling procedure
which does not afford any basis for estimating the
probability for each item to be included in the sample-
The person selecting the sample possessively selects a
sample which is suitable for his study.
Convenience Sampling
It selecting a convenient population eg for the study
of the spending habits of the students, if we select a
sample of students from a nearby college, the
sampling is convenient sampling-
Judgmental Sampling /Purposive
Sampling
Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience
sampling in which the population elements are selected
based on the knowledge and professional expertise in
the field where the researcher does the research
Quota Sampling
Adopted in making surveys of public opinion—only
definite quotas of persons in different social classes,
different age groups, different regions are selected for
interviews-interviewers are given quotas to be filled
from different strata with some restrictions
Snowball sampling
In snowball sampling, an initial group of respondents are
selected usually at random and interviewed. After this,
these respondents are asked to identify others who belong
to the target population of interest. Like setting the ball in
motion-growing in size as it rolls down--Subsequent
respondents are selected based on the referrals—locates
right people with desired characteristics at a low cost
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