Chapter 1

Ocean basins- Distribution of land and water, Hypsography

of the continents and ocean floor –continental shelf, slope,
rise and abyssal plains
 Ocean Basins
Large geologic depressions on Earth's surface

Result of tectonic, volcanic, and sedimentary processes over millions of years

Cover about 71% of Earth's surface

Ocean basins are shaped by tectonic and geological processes:
1. Tectonic Plate Movement : Sea-floor spreading at mid-ocean ridges creates new
oceanic crust.
2. Subduction zones consume old crust, forming trenches.
3. Volcanic Activity : Underwater volcanoes form islands and seamounts (e.g., Hawaii).
4. Erosion and Sedimentation : Rivers and coastal processes deposit sediments, shaping
continental shelves.
5. Glaciation: Ice ages influenced the size and depth of ocean basins through erosion and
deposition.
Ocean Basins
The Earth's surface is 71% water, with five primary ocean basins:
[Link] Ocean:
•The largest and deepest ocean.
•Covers more than 30% of Earth's surface.
•Bounded by Asia and Australia to the west, and the Americas to the east.
[Link] Ocean:
•The second-largest ocean.
•Lies between the Americas to the west and Europe and Africa to the east.
•Features the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a major tectonic boundary.
[Link] Ocean:
•The third-largest ocean.
•Located mainly in the Southern Hemisphere.
•Bounded by Africa, Asia, and Australia.
[Link] Ocean:
•Encircles Antarctica and is the fourth-largest.
•Plays a significant role in global climate and ocean circulation.
[Link] Ocean:
•The smallest and shallowest ocean.
•Located around the North Pole, bordered by Eurasia and North America.
Ocean Bathymetry
Bathymetry is the measurement of
ocean depths and charting of the shape,
or topography of the ocean floor.

Determining bathymetry involves

measuring the vertical distance from
the ocean surface down to the
mountains, valleys, and plains of the sea
floor.
 Earth’s Hypsographic curve.
Cumulative curve which gives the percentage of surface area from the highest peaks to the deepest depths of the oceans
Continental Margins
 Shallow-water areas close to continents
 Continental margins can be classified as either passive margin or active margin
 Passive Continental Margins
Embedded within the interior of lithospheric plates
Usually lack major tectonic activity (such as large earthquakes, eruptive volcanoes, and mountain
building).
Produced by rifting of continental landmasses and continued sea floor spreading over geologic time.
Features of passive continental margins
1. Continental shelf,
2. Continental slope, and
3. Continental rise
4. Submarine Canyons
5. Submarine fans
6. Abyssal Plain
Active Processes on Passive Margins
Delta Formation
River and Coastal Processes
1. Sedimentation:
- a. Rivers and Coastal Processes
- b. Delta Formation
- c. Submarine Fans
2. Submarine Landslides (Mass Wasting) - Earthquakes Tectonic Subsidence
Submarine Fan
3. Tectonic Subsidence
4. Thermal Processes:
- Lithospheric Cooling
- Mantle Dynamics (Hotspots or mantle plumes)
5. Marine Erosion and Deposition:
- Wave Action
- Tides
6. Hydrocarbon Generation (e.g., Gulf of Mexico, West Africa).
[Link] Groundwater Discharge – Nutrient Cycles
8. Gas Hydrate Formation Hot Spot/Mantle
9. Earthquakes (Rare) due to reactivated faults or sediment loading. Plume
 Active margins
 Associated with lithospheric plate boundaries
 Marked by a high degree of tectonic activity
 Two types
1. Convergent active margins
- associated with oceanic-continental & Oceanic –Oceanic convergent plate boundaries
- features include arc-shaped row of active volcanoes (continental and island arcs); Narrow shelf;
Steep slope and Offshore trench
- Types
1. Andean type _(O-O)
2. Marianas type_(O-C)
Active Processes on Active Margins

1. Subduction
2. Earthquakes (Shallow Focus) – Tsunami Generation
3. Volcanic Arcs – Continental and Island – Explosive
4. Accretionary Prisms
5. Deep Sea Trench
6. Sedimentation
7. Crustal Deformation
8. Slab Pull and Rollback
9. Geothermal Energy
Examples of Passive Margins
 Eastern United States: Western Atlantic Coast
 West Africa
 India's Western Margin: Sedimentation from rivers like
the Narmada and Tapi influences its evolution.

Examples of Active Margins

 Pacific Ring of Fire:
1. A global zone of active margins encircling the
Pacific Ocean.
2. Characterized by frequent earthquakes and
explosive volcanism.

 Andean Margin (South America):

1. Subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the
South American Plate.

 Cascadia Subduction Zone (North America):

1. Subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate beneath
the North American Plate.
Continental Shelf

Gently sloping seaward extension of continental plate.

Occupied by relatively shallow seas and gulfs.
Cover 7.5% of the total area of the ocean's basins
Gradient 1° or 3° towards offshore
The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
Variable thicknesses of sediments brought down by rivers, glaciers etc..
Characteristic Features: Coastal islands, Reefs, and Raised Banks
Massive sedimentary deposits - source of fossil fuels [Petroleum].
Examples: Continental Shelf of South-East Asia; Great Banks around Newfoundland; Submerged
Continental Shelf Formation
Tectonic activities
Sedimentation - 1. Sediment supply
2. Sediment redistribution
3. Submarine Canyons
Geological History - 1. Tectonic Rifting
2. Glaciation
3. Post Gondwana Group
Sea Level Changes – 1. Eustatic sea level changes
2. Isostatic adjustments
Oceanographic Processes – 1. Wave, Energy and Currents
2. Tidal Energy
Volcanism and Mantle Dynamics – 1. Mantle Plumes
2. Volcanic Activity
 Human Impact i.e. Coastal Development
Width of Continental Shelf
Average width - between 70 – 80 km (Passive) and few m’s - 30 km
(Active).
Maximum Width - 1,500 km (Siberian Shelf, Arctic Ocean) – Largest
Shelves - absent or very narrow - coasts of Chile, the west coast of
Sumatra, etc. [Ocean – Continent Convergence and Ocean – Ocean
Convergence].
Depth of Continental Shelf
As shallow as 30 m to as deep as 600 m.
Average Depth – 180 m
Average Depth – Antarctic Ocean – 350 m (not exposed during Ice Age)

Importance of Continent Shelves

1. Marine Food & Richest fishing grounds
2. Potential sites for economic minerals [20% of the world’s Petroleum and
Gas ; Polymetallic nodules (manganese nodules; concentric layers of iron
and manganese hydroxides); manganese, iron copper, gold etc..]
Types of Ocean Sediments
1. Terrigenous – Active Margins – Less Width
In Passive Margin
2. Biogenous Biogenous > Terrigenous > Hydrogenous

3. Hydrogenous
4. Cosmogenous
Types of shelves (based on origin of sediments)
1. Glaciated shelf
(Surrounding Greenland)
2. Coral reef shelf
(Queensland, Australia)
3. Shelf of a large river
(Around Nile Delta)
4. Shelf with dendritic valleys
(At the Mouth of Hudson River)
5. Shelf along young mountain ranges
(Shelves between Hawaiian Islands)
Types of shelves (based on Relief)
1. Medium (10-50 m) relief shelf Increase
2. Low (< 10m) relief shelf and in
3. High (>50 m) relief Areal
extent
• Less glacial activity:
• Sediment deposition:
Low-Moderate Relief Shelf

• High glacial activity

• High Tectonic activities High Relief Shelf
Global distribution of
extended Ocean Basin
features
Continental Shelves – India Context
1. Maximum Shelf limit – 100 fathom (1fathom
= 1.8 meter)
2. East Coast – Cont. Shelf – 50Km wide
West Coast – Cont. Shelf – 150Km wide
3. Shelves –
1. narrow – Off Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna,
Cauvery rivers
2. wide – Off Narmada, Tapti and Mahi rivers
4. Average Slope – East Coast - 21°
- Cape Comorin - 10 °
- Gulf of Cambay - 1 °
CONTINENTAL SHELF OF WESTERN INDIA
1. Extend from Sir Creek in the north to Kanyakumari in the south,
2. Located in trailing passive margin that bears the imprint of generally shore-parallel and
less common orthogonal structural elements.
3. The coastal ocean current operates from April to October and the net sediment
transport is from north to south with the longshore current.
4. The continental shelf width varies from 345 km off Daman in the north to 120 km off
Goa and tapers to 60 km off Kochi in the south.
5. The western continental shelf of India has an area of about 310 000 km 2, and is
6. It is divided into an
A) Inner shelf with modern clayey silt and silty clay sediments with high organic
matter and low carbonate content,
B) Outer shelf having relict carbonate sediments, coarse sands with low organic
matter and high carbonates
C) Mid-shelf is rather uneven topographically
7. Outer shelf possess shore-parallel ridges and reefs with a relief of 2–18 m.
Continental Shelf of Eastern India
1. Continental shelf with a variable width of 35 km off Tamil Nadu to 60 km off north Andhra
Pradesh and 120 km around Digha.
2. The shelf has a gentle slope in the northern sector and is moderately steep in the south
3. The east continental shelf of India is characterized by four major deltas; the Ganges,
Mahanadi, Krishna–Godavari and Cauvery. The inter-deltaic shelves are generally
sediment starved.
4. Inner shelf - silty to clayey silt and sandy,
5. Outer shelf - carbonate sands with coral debris and shell fragments.
6. From North Andhra Pradesh sector off the Kakinada–Kalingapatnam sector - outer shelf is
characterized by carbonate sands, lime mud and ooids in the.
7. From off Chennai–Mahabalipuram, Nagapattinam–Point Calimere – Outer Shelf -
characterized by a thin veneer of authigenic sediment represented by glauconite and
phosphatic sediment.
8. The large volume of sediment input from the deltaic system of two major drainages,
Krishna and Godavari, has a significant influence on the morphology and sedimentation of
the continental shelf.
Continental Slope
The continental slope connects continental shelf and the ocean basins.
The gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5° worldwide
Max & Min slope : 1° to 25°
 Active Margin – Aveg Slope -5 ° -Pacific;
Passive Margin – Aveg Slope - 3 ° - Atlantic & Indian
The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3000 m.
Global Coverage – 8.5% (12.4%-Atlantic; 7%-Pacific & 6.5%-Indian)
No marine deposits
The continental slope boundary indicates the end of the continents.
Canyons and trenches are observed in this region.
Confined to 20-50 ° N and 70-80 °N&S Latitude
 Submarine Canyons
Long, narrow and very deep V-shaped valleys
and trenches with vertical walls located on
continental shelf and mainly on continental
slope, and submerged into ocean water.
Always transverse to the coasts and along
mouth of rivers
 Different from continental canyon (beneath
water; formation; erosional agents; depth and
width at head and mouth)
Depth -610 m to 915 m
2 Types
1. Glacially eroded
Ex: Submarine Canyon – Monterey Canyon
2. Non-Glacial eroded (abundant & Continental Canyon – Grand Canyon
present in all oceans)
Sediment Type: gravel, pebbles, sands, silt and
clay
Distribution of Submarine Canyons
• Not a latitude specific but location specific
(river-straight coast- faults)
 Origin of Submarine Canyon
1. Tectonic consequences (like folding, faulting, warping, etc.) may determine
the formation of submarine canyons
2. Subsequent drowning of river valleys and submergence of continental
margins.
3. Turbidity currents (majority of Submarine Canyons are of this type)
Turbidity Current and Submarine Canyon
Ocean Currents and Submarine
Canyon
Continental Rise and Deep-Sea Fans
 Deep Sea Fans – Fan or Lobate shaped deposits at mouth of Submarine canyon
 Continental Rise – Coalesce of deep-sea fans
Lies at base of continental
slope
 Width – 300 km
 Water Depth – 1.5 – 5 km
 Absent or negligible in active margin
 Abundant in Atlantic and Indian Ocean
 Factor responsible for formation :
1. Turbidity Current
2. Decrease in gradient

 Sediments are well graded – deposits – Turbidite Deposits

(horizontal and vertical growth)
 Deep Ocean Basins
Abyssal Plain, Abyssal Hills (Volcanic Islands; Seamounts; Table mounts
or Guyots), Ocean deeps and trenches and MOR’s
Ocean floor features on a scale from 0-35,000 feet below sea level

(NOAA Office of Education)

 Abyssal Plains
Flattest terrain on earth surface and most extensive plain
76% of ocean floor
Slope Gradient = 0 -5degrees
Volcanic rocks + unconsolidated deposits
Unconsolidated deposits = Terrigenous + Pelagic sediments
Water Depth – 3 – 6 km
Abundant in Atlantic and Indian Ocean
Abyssal Hills or Seaknolls
• Hills of volcanic origin
• Types –
1. Volcanic Islands
2. Seamounts
3. Table mounts or Guyots
 Ocean Deeps and Trenches
• Very deep, less extensive depression – Ocean Deep
• Very deep, narrow, extensive – Ocean Trench
• Present along Active margins
• Parallel the coastline
• Ex. Mariana Trench
Mid Oceanic
Ridges Well known MOR’s
1. Mid Atlantic Ridge
2. Mid Indian Ocean Ridge
3. East Pacific Rise

Associated with Divergent boundaries

Basaltic Pillow Lava
Crest –broad and rounded
Slopes steeper
Width – 1000 km
Ridge Height – 2.5 km
Tectonically active
Transform faults are common
Hydrothermal vents (Black and white smokers)
Seafloor spreading