CHAPTER: 2

TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING [16 MARKS]

Chapter Includes:
2.1 Definitions
2.2 Principle of optical distance measurements
2.3 Systems of tacheometric measurements-Stadia method and tangential
method using vertical staff
2.4 Subtense bar
2.5 Booking and plotting of details
2.6 Sources of errors and precision of tacheometric survey
2.7 Instruction on field work
Introduction to Tacheometry:
 Tacheometry is a branch of surveying in which horizontal and vertical
distances from instrument station to staff positions are determined by taking
angular observations with an instrument known as a tacheometer.
 The method is very rapid and convenient.

 chaining/tapping operation is eliminated in this survey.

 Tacheometric survey is adopted in rough and difficult terrain where direct

chaining and levelling are not possible or very difficult.
 Not very accurate, The expected precision is 1 in 1000.
Purpose/ Use of Tacheometry:
 The basic objective of tacheometry is the preparation of contour map. It is assumed to
be rapid and accurate method in rough terrain.
 Preparation of topographic maps which require both elevations and horizontal
distances.
 Survey works in difficult terrain where direct method of measurements are
inconvenient.
 Used for detail filling.

 Reconnaissance survey for highways and railways.

 Establishing secondary control points.

 Checking of already measured distances.

Instruments used in Tacheometry:

1. Tacheometer

 Tacheometer is nothing but a transit

theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm and
an anallatic lens.
 The stadia diaphragm has three horizontal
hairs.
 The upper and bottom hair are equidistant
from the central horizontal hair.
Characteristics of Tacheometer:
 The multiplying constant should have 100.
 The telescope should be truly anallatic lens to
make the additive constant zero
 The telescope should be powerful having a
magnification of 20 to 30 diameters.
 The aperture of the objective should be 35 to 45
mm in diameter to have a sufficiently bright
image.
 The eye- piece should be greater magnifying
power than usual, so that it is possible to obtain a
clear staff reading from a long distance.
 Instruments used in Tacheometry:
2. Levelling Staff
 For small distances (say up to 100 meters), ordinary levelling staff
may be used. It is normally 5 m. long. Minimum reading is of
0.005m can be taken.

3. Stadia rod:
 For greater distances, a stadia rod may be used. A stadia rod is
usually of one piece, having 3 – 5 meters length. A stadia rod
graduated in 5 mm for smaller distances and while for longer
distances, the rod may be graduated in 1 cm.
Principle of stadia tacheometry:
 The principle of tacheometry is based on the property of similar isosceles triangles,
where the ratio of the perpendicular to the base is always constant.

In figure, let two rays OA and OB be equally inclined to central ray OC.
Let A2B2, A1B1 and AB be the staff intercepts. Evidently,
Then, according to principle of tacheometry
Methods or System of tacheometry:

Tangential Method
System of Fixed Hair Method
Tacheometry
Stadia method
Movable Hair Method
1. Stadia method:
A. The fixed hair method
 The distance between the stadia hairs is fixed in this method, which is the commonly
used.
 When the staff is sighted through the telescope a certain portion of the staff is
intercepted by the upper, middle and lower stadia.
 The value of the staff intercept is varying with the distance.

 The distance between the station and the staff can be obtained by multiplying the staff
intercept by stadia constant. T-M = M-B = S/2 [where , S = T-B]

 When the staff intercept is more than the length of the staff, only half intercept is read.
Methods or System of tacheometry………..
B. Movable hair method
 In this method the staff intercept is kept constant, but the distance between the
stadia hairs is variable.
 The diaphragm consists of a central wire fixed with the axis of the telescope.
 The upper and lower stadia wires can be moved by micrometer screws in a
vertical plane.
 The distance by which the stadia wires are moved is measured according to the
number of turns of the micrometer screws.
Special Diaphragm of movable Staff with Targets
hair theodolite
[Link] Method
 The diaphragm of the tacheometer is not
provided with stadia hair.
 The reading are taken by the single
horizontal hair.
 To measure the staff intercept, two pointing
are required.
 This method is not used because of two
angular observations are required for single
D=
distance measurement.
V=
Theory of Stadia Tacheometry:

Let,
‘O’ is the optical Centre of the object lens of
telescope.
a, b, c = represents the three horizontal cross hairs
i = ab = stadia hair interval
S= AB = staff intercept

A,B,C = represents the staff reading cut by cross hairs

D = distance between vertical axis to the staff
d = distance between vertical axis if instrument from O
f = focal length of object lens
f1 = horizontal distance of staff from optical center of instrument

f2 = horizontal distance of cross hair from O

Theory of Stadia Tacheometry:

From, similar triangles  AOB &  aOb

…………………………… (i)
Since f1 & f2 are conjugate focal distances, we
have from lens formula,
………..………… (ii)
Multiplying by ‘ff1’ on both sides
Theory of Stadia Tacheometry:
Substituting the value of from (i)

Now, D = f1 + d

D= +d

D = + (f + d)

D= KS + C ………………………… (iii)

Where,
K = multiplying constant = stadia interval factor = 100, generally
C = additive constant = 0.3 - 0.5 and 0 for anallatic lens.
Anallatic lens
Anallatic lens is an additional lens used in the instrument. It is a special
convex lens which is placed between the object glass and the eyepiece
of the telescope in order to make the additive constant (f + d) exactly
zero.
Determination of Tacheometric constants K & C (field method)

For determining the tacheometric constants, following steps are followed:

1. Measure a line AB 100 m long on a fairly level ground and fix pegs at 25 m intervals.
2. Set up the instrument at A & center it over the ground point accurately.
3. Obtain the staff intercepts S1, S2, S3 & S4 by taking the stadia readings on a staff held vertically at each
peg.
4. Substitute the different values of D & S in tacheometric equation D = KS + C
5. We get four equations and solve them in pairs to get values of constants.
6. Mean values are the required values of constant K & C.
Example:

Q. A staff was held vertically at a distance of 46.2 m and 117.6

m from the center of a theodolite fitted with stadia hairs and the
staff intercepts were 0.45m & 1.15 m respectively. Calculate
Tacheometric constants.
Ans: K = 102, C = 0.3
Distance and Elevation formulae in Tacheometry:

Case-I: when line of sight is horizontal, and staff is held vertical

Case-II: line of sight is inclined but staff held vertical

Case-III: Line of sight is inclined & staff held normal

Distance and Elevation formulae in Tacheometry……….

Case-I: when line of sight is horizontal, and staff is held vertical

‘A’ = instrument station
B = staff station held vertically
D = horizontal distance between A & B
M = middle cross hair reading
S = Staff Intercept = Top – Bottom cross
hair reading

Let,
k = 100
c=0
Horizontal distance (D) = KS + C
D = 100S
 RL of B = RL of A + HI – m
Case-II: line of sight is inclined but staff held vertical
A. Considering angle of elevation
We have to find out horizontal distance between P &Q and RL of Q if RL of P is known.
P = Instrument station;
Q = Staff station
O = Optical Centre of the objective
A, C, B = Points corresponding to the readings of
fs ight
the three hairs Li ne o
S = AB = Staff intercept;
Ө = Inclination of the line of sight from the
horizontal
L = Length OC measured along the line of sight Horizontal line
D = PQ = Horizontal distance between the
instrument and the staff
V = Vertical intercept at Q, between the line of sight
and the horizontal line
h = height of the instrument;
m = central hair reading
 = angle between the two extreme rays
corresponding to stadia hairs.
Case-II: Continue……

Draw a line A’CB’ normal to the line-of-sight OC.

Here, ACAʹ = 
OCBʹ = 90
BCBʹ = 90° - (90° -) = 

From OCF,
OCF = 90°-
Also,
AʹOC = /2
OAʹC = 90° - /2
AAʹC = 180° - (90° - /2) = 90° + /2

Since /2 is very small (its value being equal to 17’ 11” for OC/AB = k = 100), ignoring the value of /2.
AAʹC = BBʹC = 90° (nearly equal to right angle)
Case-II: Continue……

Now,
From AAʹC & BBʹC
AʹC = AC cos
BʹC = BC cos

AʹC + BʹC = AC cos + BC cos

= cos ( AC + BC )
AʹBʹ = AB cos 
AʹBʹ = S cos 
Inclined distance OC = L
L = K. AʹBʹ + C
L = K. S cos  + C
Horizontal distance (D) = L cos
= (K. S cos  + C) cos

D = KS cos2 + C. cos……. (i)

 Case-II: Continue…..

From OCF,
CF = V = L sin
V = (K. S cos  + C) sin
V = K.S Sin. Cos + C Sin
V = + C. Sin  ……… (ii)

 RL of Q = RL of P + HI + V – m
Case-II: line of sight is inclined but staff held vertical

B. Considering angle of Depression

D = KS cos2 + C. cos

V = + C. Sin 

 RL of P = RL of O + HI - V – h
Case-III: Line of sight is inclined & staff held normal
A. Considering angle of Elevation
AB = S = staff intercept
 = angle of elevation or depression
L = OC = inclined distance
r = axial or middle hair reading
D = horizontal distance between P &Q
With the same notations as in the last case, we
have
L=Ks+C

D = OC’ + C’Q’
= L cosӨ + r sinӨ
D = (K s + C) cosӨ + r sinӨ
Similarly,
V = L sinӨ = (k s + C) sinӨ
 RL of Q = RL of P +HI + V- r Cos (if angle of elevation)
 RL of Q = RL of P +HI - V- r Cos (if angle of depression)
Numerical No. : 1

A tacheometer was set-up at an intermediate station C & following reading were obtained on
a staff held vertically. Calculate the horizontal distance CD & RL of D, when the constant of
instrument are 100 & 0.15. Also, gradient between D to BM.
[Answer: Gradient 1 in 8]

Inst. Staff point vertical angle Staff readings Remarks

station
BM -5º20’ 1.150, 1.800, 2.450 RL of BM = 750.50 m
C
D +8º12’ 0.750, 1.500, 2.250
Solution:
Here,
K = 100
C = 0.15
When Staff is held on BM
S1 = 2.450 – 1.150 = 1.30
1 = 5º20’
m1 = middle staff reading = 1.800 m
We have,
D1 = KS1 Cos2 1 + C. cos1
= 129.026 m
Also,
V1 = + C. Sin 1
= 12.045 m
Solution:
When Staff is held at ‘D’
S2 = 2.250 – 0.750 = 1.50
2 = 8º12’
m2 = middle staff reading = 1.500 m
We have,
D2 = KS2 Cos2 2 + C. cos2
= 147.097 m
Also,
V2 = + C. Sin 2
= 21.197 m
Now, total horizontal distance between BM to D
D = D1 + D2 = 276.123 m

RL of D = RL of BM + m1 + V1 + V2 – m2 = 784.042 m
Now,
RL difference between D & BM = RL of D – RL of BM
= 33.542 m

Gradient

Gradient =
Gradient = = = 1 in ‘n’

Gradient between D and BM = = =

Gradient between D to BM ( downward )

Numerical No. : 2

A tacheometer was set-up at an intermediate station C of line AB and following reading were
obtained. The instrument was fitted with an anallatic lens & the constant of instrument was
100. Find the gradient of the line joining station A & B .
[Answer: Gradient 1 in 10]

Inst. station Staff point vertical angle Staff readings

A -6º 20’ 0.445, 1.675, 2.290

C
B +4º 20’ 0.950, 1.880, 2.810
Solution:
Here,
K = 100
C = 0 (anallatic lens)
When Staff is held on A
S1 = 2.905 – 0.445 = 2.460
1 = 6º20’
m1 = middle staff reading = 1.675 m
We have,
D1 = KS1 Cos2 1 + C. cos1
= 243.0 m
Also,
V1 = + C. Sin 1
= 26.971 (-ve)
When Staff is held at ‘B’
S2 = 2.810 – 0.950 = 1.860
2 = 4º20’
m2 = middle staff reading = 1.880 m
We have,
D2 = KS2 Cos2 2 + C. cos2
= 184.94 m
Also,
V2 = + C. Sin 2
= 14.014 m

Now, total horizontal distance between A to B

D = D1 + D2 = 427.940 m
Let, RL of instrument axis = x
RL of A = RL of Inst. axis - V1 – m1

RL of A = x – 28.646
Now,
RL of B = RL of Inst. Axis + V2 – m2
RL of B = x + 12.134

Difference in RL between A & B

= RL of B – RL of A
= x + 12.134 - (x – 28.646 )
= 40.780 m
Gradient of line AB = = =

Gradient between A to B ( Upward )

Numerical No. : 3

Q. A tacheometer fitted with an anallatic lens and multiplying constant 100 was set-up at
station C and following reading were taken on a vertically held staff. Calculate the horizontal
distance from BM to D and RL of D. if angle subtended at C is 40º.

Inst. Staff point vertical angle Staff readings Remarks

station
BM -5º20’ 1.50, 1.80, 2.10 RL of BM = 750.00 m
C
D +18º12’ 0.750, ? , 2.250
Solution:
Here,
K = 100
C = 0 (anallatic lens)
When Staff is held on BM
S1 = 2.10 – 1.50 = 0.60
1 = 5º20’
m1 = middle staff reading = 1.80 m
We have,
D1 = KS1 Cos2 1 + C. cos1
= 59.48 m
Also,
V1 = + C. Sin 1
= 5.55 m
When Staff is held at ‘D’
S2 = 2.25 – 0.75 = 1.50

2 = 18º12’

m2 = middle staff reading = (T+B)/2

= 1.50 m

We have,
D2 = KS2 Cos2 2 + C. cos2

= 135.37 m

Also,
V2 = + C. Sin 2

= 44.51 m
 X = 97.61 m

Now, total horizontal distance between BM to D = 97.61 m

RL of D = RL of BM + m1 + V1 + V2 – m2
RL of D = 800.313 m

RL Difference between D & BM

= RL of D – RL of BM
= 50.313 m
Gradient between D & BM= = = = 1 in 2
Numerical No. - 4

Q. The following observations were taken during a tacheometric survey

using stadia lines. Tacheometer having constants 100 and anallatic lens
& staff held vertically. Calculate the gradient between A & C

Inst. Staff point Bearing Zenithal Staff readings

station angle

A 26º 30’ 85º 28’ 2.505, …?.., 1.715

B
C 174º 18’ 96º 46’ …?., 1.355 , 0.995
Solution: Here, Zenithal angles are given. Convert them into vertical angles.
VA (1) = 90º - 85º 28’ = 4º 32’ [angle of elevation]
Given Constants :
K = 100 VA (2) = 90º - 96º 46’ = - 6º 46’ [angle of depression]
C=0

Middle staff reading (m1) = = = 2.110

When staff is held at A

D1 = KS1 Cos2 1 + C. cos1

= 78.506 m

V1 = + C. Sin 1
= 6.224 m
When staff is held at C
Top staff reading is missing = x
x- 1.355 = 1.355 – 0.995
x = 1.715 m
S = 1.715 – 0.995 = 0.720 m
M2 = 1.355 m

D2 = KS2 Cos2 2 + C. cos2

= 71.00 m
Also,
V2 = + C. Sin 2
= 8.424 m

Now.  ABC = bearing of BC – bearing of BA = 147º 48’

To calculate horizontal distance between A & C

AC = 144.03 m
Let, RL of instrument axis = x

RL of A = RL of Inst. axis + V1 – m1
= X + 6.224 – 2.110
RL of A = x + 4.114

RL of C = RL of Inst. axis - V2 – m2
= X – 8.424 – 1.355
RL of C = X – 9.779

Difference in RL between A & C

= RL of A – RL of C
= x + 4.114 - (x – 9.779 )
= 13.893 m

Gradient between A & C= = = = 1 in 10 (downward A to C)

Numerical No. : 5

Q. A tacheometer fitted with an anallatic lens and multiplying constant

100 was used to take the following readings on a vertically held staff.

Inst. Staff point Bearing Zenithal Staff readings

station angle

A 45º 00’ 78º 00’ 4.52, 4.74, ……

B
C 315º 00’ 80º 00’ …., 2.65 , 3.71

The remaining reading could not be observed due to obstruction.

Determine the gradient between A & C.
Solution: Here, Zenithal angles are given. Convert them into vertical angles.
VA (1) = 90º - 80º = 10º
Given Constants :
K = 100 VA (2) = 90º - 78º = 12º
C=0

Top staff reading = 4.74 + (4.74 – 4.52) = 4.96

When staff is held at A

Middle staff reading (m2) = 4.74
S2 = T-B = 4.96-4.52 = 0.44
D2 = KS2 Cos2 2
= 42.098 m

V2 =
= 8.95 m
When staff is held at C
Bottom staff reading
2.65 – (3.71 – 2.65) = 1.59

S1 = 3.71 – 1.59 = 2.12 m

M1 = 2.65 m

D1 = KS1 Cos2 1
= 205.607 m
Also,
V1 =
= 36.25 m

Now.  ABC ( Exterior) = bearing of BC – bearing of BA = 270º

 ABC ( Interior) = 360º -270º = 90º

To calculate horizontal distance between A & C

AB2 + BC2 = AC2
D22 + D12 = AC2

AC = 209.87 m
Let, RL of instrument axis = x

RL of A = RL of Inst. axis + V2 – m2
= X + 8.95 – 4.74

RL of A = x + 4.21

RL of C = RL of Inst. axis + V1 – m1

= X + 36.25 – 2.65

RL of C = X + 33.60

Difference in RL between A & C

= RL of C – RL of A
= x + 33.60 - (x + 4.21 )
= 29.39 m

Gradient between A & C= = = = 1 in 7 (downward C to A)

Tangential method of tacheometry:
In this method, the horizontal and vertical distances from the instrument to staff positions,
are computed from the observed vertical angles to two targets fixed at known interval on
the staff. This method can be used:
 When the staff is held much away from the instrument making difficult to read it.
 This method is useful when the diaphragm does not have stadia hairs.

Depending upon the angles (elevation or depression) there are three cases:

Case-I: Both the angles being angle of elevation:

Case-II: Both the angles being angle of depression:

Case-III: when one angles of elevation & other angle of depression:

Tangential method of tacheometry:

Case-I: Both the angles being angle of elevation:

P is the instrument station
Q is the staff position
V = vertical distance between lower target and
instrument axis
S= fixed distance between two targets
D= horizontal distance between P & Q
1= vertical angle made by upper target
2 = vertical angle made by lower target From fig.

Tan 1 = ………………….(i)

Tan 2 = …………………….(ii)
Tangential method of tacheometry………
Now,

From (i) & (ii)

Tan 1 – tan 2 = -

Tan 1 – tan 2 =

Tan 1 – tan 2 =

S = D (tan1-tan2)
From (ii)

V = D tan2
D= V=

 RL of Q = RL of P + HI + V – BQ
Tangential method of tacheometry:………

Case-II: Both the angles being angle of depression:

Tan 1 = ………… …………….(i)

Tan 2 = …………………….(ii)
From i & ii
Tan 1 – tan 2 =

Tan 1 – tan 2 = =

Tan 2 – tan 1 =
S = D (tan2 - tan1) From (i)
V = D tan1

V=

D=

 RL of Q = RL of P + HI - V – S – BQ
Tangential method of tacheometry:………

Case-III: when one angles of elevation & other angle of depression:

Tan 2 = …………………. (i)

Tan 1 = …………….. (ii)

From i & ii
Tan 1 + tan 2 =

Tan 1 + tan 2 =

Tan 1 + tan 2 =

S = D (tan1+ tan2) From (i)

V = D tan2

V=

D=

 RL of Q = RL of P + HI - V – BQ
Numerical Example (Tangential method)

Q. The following reading were taken with a transit theodolite and a staff. Calculate the
horizontal distance between the instrument station and staff. Also calculate the RL of
station Q.

Inst. Staff point Target vertical Staff readings Remarks

station angle
Lower +4º 30’ 0.950 RL of Instrument
P Q
Upper +6º 30’ 3.250 axis = 255.500 m
Solution Here,
S = 3.250 – 0.950 = 2.300 m
1 = 6º 30’
Tan 1 = 2 = 4º 30’
Tan 6º 30’ =
V + S = D tan 6º 30’ …………………………….(i)

Also,
Tan 2 =
Tan 4º 30’ =
V = D tan 4º 30’ ……………………………….(ii)

Substituting the value of D in (i)

Subtracting (ii) from (i)
V = 5.142 m
V+ S – V = D tan 6º 30’ - D tan 4º 30’
Now,
S = D (tan 6º 30’ - tan 4º 30’ ) RL of Q = RL of inst. Axis + V – lower target reading
= 255.500 + 5.142 – 0.950
D = 65.34 m
= 259.692 m
SUBTENSE BAR
 The subtense bar is an instrument used for measuring the horizontal distance
between the instrument station and a station where the subtense bar is to be set up.
 Subtense method is an indirect method of distance computation.
 The subtense bar is a metal bar of length varying from 3 to 4 m.
SUBTENSE BAR

D = S/2

D=
Difference between fixed hair and movable hair of tachometry

S. Fixed hair Movable hair

N
1 In this method interval between two stadia In this method interval between two stadia
hair is fixed. hair is variable. Stadia line are not fixed and
moved by micro-meter screw.

2 In this method horizontal distance from the In this method horizontal distance from the
instrument to the staff can be determine instrument to the staff can be determine from
from the value of staff intercept intercepted the value of stadia variable interval.
by the stadia line.

3 Staff intercept varies with the distance at The staff is provided with two vanes or target
which the staff is held. fixed at a known distance apart.

4 This method is commonly used This method is not commonly used but now
rarely used.
ERRORS IN STADIA TACHEOMETRY

I. Instrumental error
 Permanent adjustment not perfect
 Graduation of staff not uniform
 Value of multiplying & additive constant not correct
 Horizontal axis not being perpendicular to vertical axis
 Sluggish type bubble
II. Personal error
 Incorrect centering and levelling
 Staff may not be held vertical
 Imperfect focusing and parallax effect
 Very long sight distance
 Inaccurate bisection of target
 Shaky tripod
 Mistakes on zero setting, reading, recording, booking tec.
ERRORS IN STADIA TACHEOMETRY

III. Natural error

 Due to high wind
 Due to refraction and curvature
 High temperature: cause unequal expansion
 Poor visibility
Field book format (tacheometric sheet)

Data Collection Sheet