INTRODUCTION TO

NETWORKING
PROCEDURE &
PROTOCOL
Networking refers to the practice of connecting
computers and other devices to share resources
and information.

A network can range from a simple local area

network (LAN) in a small office to a complex
wide area network (WAN) spanning the globe.
In order to achieve a proper network we need a few things.

The Key Components of a Network are:

• Nodes: Devices such as computers, printers, and servers.
• Links: Communication pathways like cables (Ethernet, fiber
optics) or wireless signals.
• Switches: Devices that connect multiple devices on a LAN.
• Routers: Devices that connect different networks together.
 1. A Node/Network Node
A node refers to any device or point that
participates in a network.

Types of Nodes:
Nodes can be various devices, including:
• Computers: Desktops, laptops, servers.
• Networking Hardware: Routers, switches,
hubs, modems.
• Other Devices: Printers, smartphones, IoT
(Internet of Things) devices.
Nodes can perform the following functions:
• Endpoints: Devices that generate or consume data, like computers and
smartphones.
• Intermediaries: Devices that help in data transmission between endpoints, like
routers and switches.

Each node has a unique identifier to differentiate it from others within the network.
Common addressing schemes include:
• IP Address: In Internet Protocol (IP) networks, each node has an IP address.
• MAC Address: Each network interface card (NIC) has a unique Media Access
Control (MAC) address.

Nodes communicate with each other using various protocols and data transmission
methods.
Common protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
Nodes determine the structure of the network topology. Common topologies
include:
• Star: Nodes are connected to a central hub or switch.
• Bus: All nodes share a common communication line.
• Ring: Each node is connected to two other nodes, forming a circular pathway.
• Mesh: Nodes are interconnected, providing multiple pathways for data.

Function in Data Transfer: Nodes can send, receive, and route data. For
example, a router (a node) directs data from one network to another, while a
computer (another node) can send and receive data.

In summary, a network node is any device that is part of a network and capable
of sending, receiving, or forwarding information.
Nodes are the fundamental building blocks of any computer network, enabling
communication and resource sharing among connected devices.
 2. Links
Links refer to the physical or logical connections
between network nodes.
Links, switches, and routers play crucial roles in
connecting nodes and facilitating
communication.

Link perform the function of carrying data

between nodes.

The quality and type of link affect network

speed, bandwidth, and reliability
The types of links are:
1. Physical Links:
• Wired Connections: Cables such as Ethernet (CAT5, CAT6), fiber
optic, and coaxial cables.
• Wireless Connections: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular connections.

2. Logical Links:
• Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): Secure connections over the
internet.
• Virtual LANs (VLANs): Logical grouping of network devices in
different physical locations.
 3. Switches
Switches are networking devices that connect
multiple devices (nodes) within a local area network
(LAN) and use MAC addresses to forward data to the
correct destination within the same network.
Functions:
1. Data Forwarding: Switches receive data packets
and forward them to the appropriate device based on
MAC addresses.

2. Traffic Management: They help in managing

network traffic by reducing collisions and efficiently
using bandwidth.
3. VLAN Support: Advanced switches can create VLANs,
segmenting network traffic for better performance and
security.

Types:
• Unmanaged Switches: Simple, plug-and-play devices with
basic functionality.
• Managed Switches: Offer advanced features like VLAN
support, traffic management, and remote configuration.
1. Managed switches
Managed switches, most commonly seen in commercial and
enterprise settings, provide greater capacity and capabilities for IT
experts. To configure managed switches, command-line interfaces
are utilized. They enable simple network management protocol
agents, which offer information for troubleshooting network issues.
Administrators can also use them to create virtual LANs to split a
local network into smaller parts. Managed switches are substantially
more expensive than unmanaged switches due to their additional
functionality.
2. Unmanaged switches
The most basic switches are unmanaged switches, which have a set
configuration. An unmanaged switch merely expands a LAN’s
Ethernet connections, allowing additional internet connections to
local devices. Unmanaged switches use device MAC addresses to
transmit data back and forth. They are usually plug-and-play,
meaning the user has few alternatives to pick from.
These switches could have default configurations for aspects like
quality of service, but one cannot modify them. Unmanaged
switches are relatively cheap, but poor capability renders them
unsuitable for many corporate applications.
3. Power over ethernet (POE) switches
PoE capabilities are now available on some network switches,
making installing IoT devices and other gear faster, simpler, and safer.
PoE is a method of supplying DC power to low-power devices across
a LAN wire. Low-power devices connected to a PoE-capable network
switch will no longer require a power supply. When concealing
connections isn’t possible, this avoids the need for additional power
outlets and makes the installation seem efficient. A PoE-capable
switch is also safer because the power output is low and intelligently
managed.
CISCO’S INDUSTRY STANDARD SWITCH
A network switch can work in three ways:
•Edge switches, also known as access switches: They handle traffic entering and departing the
network. Edge switches link various devices, including personal computers and access points.

•Aggregation switches: Switches for aggregation or dissemination are located within an optional
intermediary layer. These connect to edge switches, which may transmit traffic from one switch to
another or up to the core switches.

•Core switches: The network’s backbone is made up of these switches. Core switches link edge or
aggregation switches, device or consumer edge networks to networks at data centers, and routers to
organizational LANs.

As illustrated below, a network switch is a multiport bridge for networks operating at the OSI model’s
data connection layer 2. It is responsible for data transmission using media access control address
(MAC) addresses. Certain switches can forward data to the network layer (i.e., layer 3) because they are
equipped with routing functionality. Layer 3 switches, often known as multilayer switches, are examples
of such switches.
 4. Routers
Routers are devices that connect different networks, such as
connecting a home network to the internet.
They use IP addresses to determine the best path for
forwarding data packets between networks.
Functions:
1. Data Routing: Routers analyze data packets and route
them to their destination across different networks.

2. Network Interconnection: They connect multiple

networks, enabling communication between different LANs
or between a LAN and the internet.

3. Traffic Management: Routers manage network traffic,

ensuring data is sent via the most efficient paths.
4. Network Security: They can provide firewall functions, network
address translation (NAT), and other security features to protect the
network.

Types:
• Home Routers: Typically provide Wi-Fi and Ethernet connections for
home networks.
• Enterprise Routers: More powerful devices used in large
organizations, supporting advanced routing protocols and multiple
connections.
• Core Routers: High-performance routers used in the backbone of
the internet to route data at the highest levels.
 TYPES OF ROUTERS

BASIC ROUTER
 Summary.
• Links: Connect nodes physically or logically, enabling
data transmission.
• Switches: Connect devices within a LAN, using MAC
addresses to forward data efficiently.
• Routers: Connect different networks, using IP
addresses to route data between them and manage
traffic and security.

Together, these components form the backbone of

modern networking, enabling devices to communicate
efficiently and securely across various types of networks.
 Types of Networks
There are several types of networks, each designed to meet different needs and
scales of connectivity. Here are the primary types:

1. PERSONAL AREA NETWORK (PAN)

This is very small, typically within a single room or a few meters.
PAN connects personal devices like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and printers.
• Example: Bluetooth connections, USB connections.

2. LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

This is limited to a single building or a group of buildings.
LAN connects computers and other devices within an office, school, or home.
• Example: An office network where all computers are connected to a central
switch and can share files and resources.
 Types of
Networks

PAN

LAN
3. WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORK (WLAN)
This is similar to a LAN but uses wireless connections.
WLAN connects devices wirelessly within a specific area.
• Example: Wi-Fi networks in homes, cafes, and offices.

4. METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)

This spans a city or a large campus.
MAN connects multiple LANs within a metropolitan area.
• Example: A city-wide Wi-Fi network or a university campus network.

5. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)

This covers large geographic areas, such as countries or continents.
WAN connects multiple LANs and MANs over long distances.
• Example: The internet, a company's network connecting offices in different cities.
6. CAMPUS AREA NETWORK (CAN)
This is specific to a campus, such as a university, military base, or corporate
campus. CAN connects multiple buildings within a limited geographic area.
• Example: A university's network that connects various academic and
administrative building.

7. STORAGE AREA NETWORK (SAN)

This is a specialized, high-speed network. SAN provides access to consolidated,
block-level data storage.
• Example: Data centers using SANs to connect storage devices to servers.

8. SYSTEM AREA NETWORK (SAN) or CLUSTER AREA NETWORK

This connects high-performance computing resources. It facilitates high-speed
data transfer in clustered computing environments.
• Example: Networks used in supercomputing environments.
9. HOME AREA NETWORK (HAN)
This is limited to a residential setting. HAN connects all digital
devices within a home.
• Example: A home network that connects devices like smart
TVs, laptops, and home automation systems.

10. ENTERPRISE PRIVATE NETWORK (EPN)

This spans an entire organization. EPN is used by businesses to
securely connect various locations and resources.
• Example: A corporate network connecting headquarters,
branch offices, and remote workers.
11. VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK (VPN)
This extends a private network across public networks.
VPN provides secure, encrypted connections for remote users to
access the corporate network.
• Example: Employees using a VPN to securely access company
resources from home.

12. GLOBAL AREA NETWORK (GAN)

This extends across the globe.
GAN connects networks over very large distances, including
satellite communications.
• Example: The internet as a network of networks.
 Summary
These various types of networks cater to different scales
and purposes, from personal use in a home (PAN) to global
connectivity (GAN).

Each type of network uses specific technologies and

configurations to meet the needs of its users, providing the
necessary infrastructure for data communication and
resource sharing.
NETWORK
MODELS
 1. The OSI Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a

conceptual framework used to understand and
implement standard protocols in networking.
It divides network communication into seven
distinct layers, each with specific functions.
These layers help ensure interoperability between
different network devices and software.
1. The OSI Model
The Seven Layers of the OSI Model are:

1. PHYSICAL LAYER (Layer 1):

It deals with the physical connection between devices, including cables,
switches, and the transmission of raw binary data over physical
mediums.
• Examples: Ethernet cables, fiber optics, radio frequencies.

2. DATA LINK LAYER (Layer 2):

This layer handles error detection and correction from the physical layer,
manages MAC addresses, and controls data flow between adjacent
nodes.
• Examples: Ethernet (MAC addresses), switches, bridges.
3. NETWORK LAYER (Layer 3):
This layer manages data routing, forwarding, and addressing. It determines the
best path for data to travel across networks.
• Examples: IP addresses, routers, IP (Internet Protocol).

4. TRANSPORT LAYER (Layer 4):

It ensures reliable data transfer, flow control, error correction, and
retransmission of lost packets.
• Examples: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

5. SESSION LAYER (Layer 5)

This layer manages sessions or connections between applications, maintaining,
establishing, and terminating communication sessions.
• Examples: Sessions in web browsers, APIs for session management.
6. PRESENTATION LAYER (Layer 6):
It translates data between the application layer and the
network, handling encryption, compression, and translation of
data formats.
• Examples: SSL/TLS encryption, JPEG, ASCII.

7. APPLICATION LAYER (Layer 7):

This provides network services directly to end-user
applications. It facilitates communication between software
applications and lower layers.
• Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.
 2. TCP/IP Model
This is a simpler model specifically designed for the
suite of internet protocols.
It has four layers:
1. Link Layer which corresponds to OSI's Physical and
Data Link layers.
2. Internet Layer; corresponds to OSI's Network layer.
3. Transport Layer which is the same as OSI's
Transport layer.
4. Application Layer which encompasses OSI's
Application, Presentation, and Session layers.
2. TCP/IP Model
 3. Hybrid Model
It is a combination of the OSI and TCP/IP
models often used for educational
purposes to explain network concepts.

This model may adapt elements from both

models to provide a more practical
understanding.
3. Hybrid Model
4. 3-Layer Hierarchical Model
This model is used in designing enterprise
networks, focusing on scalability and
performance.
Its layers are:
1. Core Layer which is the high-speed backbone
of the network.
2. Distribution Layer: Routing, filtering, and WAN
access.
3. Access Layer for connecting end devices like
PCs and printers.
5. Cisco's Hierarchical Network Model

This is similar to the 3-layer hierarchical model

but more detailed, focusing on specific network
functions within an enterprise.

This model divides the network into three layers—

Core, Distribution, and Access, each with distinct
functions and protocols.
 Summary
The OSI Model is a seven-layer framework that standardizes network
functions to ensure interoperability and communication between
different systems.

There are other models, such as the TCP/IP Model, which is simpler
and more practical for real-world networking, and hierarchical models
like Cisco's, which focus on the structural and functional design of
enterprise networks.

These models help in understanding, designing, and troubleshooting

complex networks by breaking down the network communication
process into manageable layers or components.
 Network Topology
Network topology refers to the arrangement of various elements (links,
nodes, etc.) in a computer network.

Common Network Topologies:

• Bus Topology where all devices share a single communication line.
• Star Topology - all devices are connected to a central hub.
• Ring Topology, where each device is connected to two other devices,
forming a circular pathway.
• Mesh Topology; every device is connected to every other device.
• Hybrid Topology which is a combination of two or more different types
of topologies.
Network Topology
Network Topology
Network Topology
Network Topology
Network Topology
 IP Addresses
IP addresses are unique identifiers for devices on a network.
Types of IP Addresses:
• IPv4: 32-bit addresses, e.g., [Link].
• IPv6: 128-bit addresses, e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334.

Subnetting
Subnetting divides a network into smaller, more efficient
subnetworks.
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP)
DHCP automatically assigns IP addresses to
device.

Domain Name System (DNS)

DNS translates domain names to IP addresses.
 Network Security
This ensures the protection of data and resources in a network.
The key concepts in Network Security are:
• Firewalls: Control incoming and outgoing network traffic.
• Encryption: Secures data by encoding it.
• VPN (Virtual Private Network): Extends a private network
across a public network.
• Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS): Monitors network traffic for
suspicious activity.
 Network Management
This is for monitoring and maintaining network
performance.
The key Network Management tasks are:
• Performance Monitoring: Keeping track of network
performance metrics.
• Configuration Management: Managing the network’s
hardware and software configurations.
• Fault Management: Detecting, isolating, and resolving
network issues.
 Common Networking Tools
Tools used for network setup, monitoring, and
troubleshooting.
Examples:
• Ping: Tests connectivity between devices.
• Traceroute: Traces the path data takes to reach its
destination.
• Wireshark: Captures and analyzes network traffic.
• Netstat: Displays network connections and statistics.
Understanding networking procedures and
protocols is essential for creating efficient and
secure networks.

This knowledge lays the foundation for more

advanced topics and practical applications in
the field of networking.
 Protocols and Standards in Computer
Networks
Protocols and standards are important in computer networks.
They resemble the rules and guidelines that ensure that different devices
and systems can communicate and work together smoothly.

Protocols determine how data is sent, received and processed, while

standards ensure that different technologies are compatible with each
other.
This coordination is critical to keep the Internet and other networks
functioning consistently and efficiently.
 Introduction to Networking Protocols and
Procedures
Networking protocols and procedures ensure proper data transmission,
security, and management within a network.
The key procedures are:
• Data Transmission which ensures data is sent and received correctly.
• Routing; determines the best path for data to travel across a network.
• Network Configuration for setting up network devices and connections.
• Security Protocols; for implementing measures to protect data and
network integrity.

Network protocol ensures that different technologies and components of the

network are compatible with each other, are reliable and can function
together.
 What is Protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules that determine how data is sent and received
over a network.
The protocol is similar to a language that computers use to talk to each
other, allowing them to understand each other's messages and respond
to them correctly.
Protocols ensure that data moves smoothly and securely between devices
on a network.

To make communication between devices successful, some rules and

procedures must be agreed upon on the sending and receiving sides of
the system. Such rules and procedures are called protocols.
Different types of protocols are used for different types of communication.
protocols are represented as a series of rules.
Without a protocol, communication between sender and receiver is not
possible .
The key elements of the protocol are:
• Syntax: Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data exchanged
between the devices.
The syntax of the message includes the type of data, the composition of
the message, and the order of the message.
The first 8 data bits are considered the sender's address.
The next 8 bits are considered the receiver address.
The remaining bits are considered the message itself.

• Semantics: Semantics defines data sent between devices.

It provides rules and standards for understanding the values and actions
of messages or data elements.
• Timing: Timing refers to the synchronization and coordination between
devices while transferring the data.
Timing ensures at what time data should be sent and how quickly data
can be sent.
For example, if a transmitter transmits 100 Mbps, but the receiver can
only handle 1 Mbps, the receiver will flood and lose data. Timing ensures
that data loss, collisions, and other timing-related issues are prevented.

• Sequence Control: Sequence control ensures the correct order of data

packets.
The main responsibility of sequence control is to acknowledge the data as
it is received, and to retransmit any lost data.
Through this mechanism, the data is delivered in the correct order.
• Flow control: Power control controls the delivery of device data. It limits
the sender's data or asks the recipient if he is ready for more. Flow
control prevents data congestion and loss.

• Error checking: Error checkingmechanisms detect and repair errors in

data transmission. They include error detection codes, data
retransmission, and error recovery.
Error checking detects and corrects noise, interference and other
problems that need to be maintained.

• Security : Network security protects the confidentiality, integrity and

authenticity of data. including encryption, authentication, access control
and other security procedures.
The privacy and reliability of network communications are protected by
security standards.
 Types of Protocols:
• NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOLS: They operate in the network layer also known as Layer
3 of the network architecture.
Network layer protocols are responsible for routing, forwarding, and addressing data
packets throughout the network. IP and ICMPare the network layer protocols.

• TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS: They work in the transport layer which provides end-
to-end service and ensures data transfer between apps on different devices. TCP and
InUDPare the most popular transport layer protocols.

• APPLICATION LAYER PROTOCOLS: They operate at the application layer of the

network architecture and provides communication between applications running on
different devices.
The application layer protocols enable communication between devices.
They format, exchange and interpret application [Link],FTP, InSMTPare examples.
• WIRELESS PROTOCOLS: Wireless protocols primarily used in wireless
communications that enable data transfer over wireless networks. Bluetooth,
Wifi and LTE protocols are examples.

• ROUTING PROTOCOLS: The routing protocol ensures the best/optimal network

paths throughout the network for the fastest data transfer.
Routers share information to develop and maintain routing tables. OSPF, InBGP
are examples.

• SECURITY PROTOCOLS: Security protocol protects the confidentiality, integrity

and authenticity of data during the transmission of data over the network.
They contain SSL en TLS, encryption methods and authentication protocols to
provide data security.
• INTERNET PROTOCOL: IP uniquely identifies devices.
The Internet Protocol provides data communications by routing and forwarding data
packets from one device to another using a unique addressing scheme.

• TCP (TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL): Ensures that data is sent and received
accurately by splitting it into packets, sending it, and reassembling it at the
destination. TCP/IP: The fundamental suite of protocols for the internet.

• UDP (USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL): Provides a connectionless datagram

service that emphasizes speed over reliability.

• HTTP/HTTPS (HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL/SECURE): HTTP used for

transferring web pages on the Internet.
When you visit a website, your browser uses HTTP to request and display web
pages. HTTPs is a secure version of HTTP that encrypts data to prevent it from
being intercepted.
• FTP (FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL): Used for transferring files between
computers on a network. It allows users to upload and download files.

• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): It is used for sending emails.

It transfers emails from a client to a server or between servers.

• DNS (DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM): It is used to translate human-readable

domain names (such as [Link]) into IP addresses that
computers use to identify each other on the network.

• DHCP (DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL): Automatically

assigns IP addresses to devices on a network so that each device has a
unique address.
 • SSH (SECURE SHELL): Provides a secure way to access and
manage devices over a network. It encrypts the data,
protecting it from eavesdropping.

• SNMP (SIMPLE NETWORK MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL): Used to

manage and monitor network devices such as routers, switches
and servers.
It collects and organizes information about these devices

• SMTP (SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL): Protocol for

sending emails.
 How are Protocols used in Cyber Attacks?

Attackers can abuse the rules for sending data over the Internet to
cause problems for systems.
A common way they do this is through distributed denial-of-service
( DDoS ) attacks. For example, in a SYN flood attack, attackers abuse
the TCP protocol.
Normally, a device sends a SYN packet to a server to initiate a
connection, and the server responds, expecting a final response to
complete the connection.
Attackers send many SYN packets, but never complete the
connections. This overloads the server, causing it to not work
properly for real users.
Cloudflare offers solutions to stop these types of attacks.

One of their services, Cloudflare Magic Transit, protects

against attacks that target different levels of the network
system.

In the event of a SYN flood attack, Cloudflare manages the

TCP connections for the server so that the server is not
overwhelmed and can continue to serve real users.
 What are Standards?
Standards are the set of data communications rules required for
the exchange of information between devices.
It is important to follow the standards set by various standards
organizations such as IEEE, ISO, ANSI, etc.

Types of standards:
• DE FACTO STANDARD: The meaning of the work “De Facto” is
“By Fact” or “By Convention”.
These are the standards that have not been approved by any
organization but have been adopted as Standards due to their
widespread use. Sometimes these standards are also often set by
 For example: Apple and Google are two companies that have set their
own rules for their products, which are different.
They also use the same standard rules for the production of their
products.

• DE JURE STANDARD: The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By law”
or “By regulation”.
These are the standards that have been approved by officially recognized
bodies such as ANSI,ISO,IEEE, etc. These are the standards that are
important to follow if required or necessary.
For example: all standard protocols for data communication, such as
SMTP, TCP, IP, UDPetc. are important to follow the same whenever we
need them.
 Protocols and Standards complaints in network
security:
• INTEROPERABILITY: Protocols and standards ensure that devices and
systems can communicate. These protocols allow network components to
function together, avoiding risks and security holes caused by incompatible or
unsupported systems.
• SECURITY BASELINE: Protocols and standards contain security principles
and best practices that help secure the network infrastructure.
These protocols allow organizations to protect sensitive data via encryption,
authenticationand access controls.
• VULNERABILITY MANAGEMENT: Network security protocols and standards
help organizations find and fix vulnerabilities. Many standards require regular
security assessments, vulnerability scans, and penetration testing to discover
flaws in network infrastructure.
Organizations can prevent these cyber attacksand address
vulnerabilities by following these compliance criteria.

The best practices for ensuring protocol and standards compliance

are to:
• Use cryptographytools to secure personal data moving across your
network, and ensure data encryption methods exceed industry
requirements.
• Perform regular security audits on all network devices to discover
vulnerabilities and ensure they meet compliance standards.
• Restrict user access to specific network zones to ensure secure data
sharing and prevent unauthorized access.
Protocols and standards enable secure and efficient
computer network communications .
They control data exchange, formatting, endpoints, and
reliable device communications.

These protocols and standards ensure network security

and performance.
Compliance can prevent data leaks and system failures.
Commonly
Asked
Questions
 Why are Protocols and Standards
important in networking?
Protocols and standards ensure that devices
from multiple companies can communicate
with each other effectively.

They also contribute to consistent and reliable

data transfer, resulting in efficient network
operations.
 What is the role of organizations such
as the IEEE and the IETF in protocol
development?
Organizations such as the IEEE and the IETF play an important
role in defining and maintaining network protocols and
standards.

They provide platforms where experts can collaborate, analyze

suggestions and agree on new protocols or changes to current
ones.
 How do Protocols guarantee Data
Integrity and Security?
Protocols typically include error detection, correction,
and encryption systems to ensure data integrity and
security during transmission.

For example, TCP uses sequence numbers and

confirmation messages to ensure that data is delivered
reliably.
What are some common
network protocols?
• TCP/IP
• FTP
• SMTP
• HTTP