Mendel’s

Law of
Inheritance
Melvin P. Aguilar, LPT
 Mendel’s
Law of
Inheritance
Melvin P. Aguilar, LPT
Objectives:

1 3
Predict the phenotypes and Describe modifications to
genotypes of parents and Mendel’s classic ratios
their offspring using
Mendel’s ;aw of inheritance

2 4
Explain sex linkage and Understand how traits are
recombination passed from parent to
offspring.
Introducti
on!
● Your genes are responsible for the traits or
characteristics you inherited from your parents or
grandparents. Genes are the units of
heredity composed of DNA molecules that are
transferred from parents to offspring. In this
module, you will understand that all organisms
have a set of genes inherited from the previous
generation. Through advancements in science
and technology, you can now understand how
genes are acquired and passed on from one
 Gregor
Mendel and
His Works
Module 6
 Gregor Johann
Mendel
The field of genetics
somehow began with
Gregor Johann Mendel, an
Austrian monk, teacher,
and biologist. He
discovered the basic
principles in the field of
genetics through
his garden pea
experiments, which is why
he is known as the father
of moden genetics.
 Gregor
Mendel
. His experiments on pea plants
led to the discovery that
there are certain traits that
follow particular patterns of
inheritance from
one generation to the next.
This led to him
formulating the laws of
inheritance the law of
dominance, law
of segregation, and law of
independent assortment.
Important Terms in
Genetics
Dominant
Allele
Trait
one of two or Trait that is
more expressed
alternative
forms of a gene
F1 F2
Generation generation
"first filial or generation
first generation produced by
of offspring interbreeding
individuals of the
F1 generation
Important Terms in
Genetics
Gamete
Genotype
s
Reproductive Genetic
sex cells composition of
an individual

Heterozygo Homozygo
us us
Organisms Organisms that
thatbhave two have two
different identical alleles
alleles for the for a particular
same trait (Aa) trait
(AA) (aa)
Important Terms in
Genetics
Phenoty Punnet
pe Square
Observable Diagram used
characteristic to predict an
s of an outcome of a
particular cross
individual
or breeding
Recessive experiment
trait
Trait that is
masked in the
presence of
dominant trait
Probability
and
Genetics
Module 6
 Probability and
Genetics
● Whenever Mendel performed a cross with pea plants, he
carefully counted the offspring.

● With his knowledge in mathematics, he found out that

every time he repeated a particular cross, he obtained
similar results, For example, whenever he crossed two
plants that were heterozygous for stem height, he kept on
getting similar results that three out of four offspring were
tall. With these results, he realized that the principles of
probability could be used in genetics.
 Probability and
Genetics
Probability is the branch of mathematics that explains
the likelihood that a particular event will occur. For
example, when you toss a coin, there is a 50%
probability, or half chance, that you will get a head. The
other 50% is for you getting a tail. Another example
is when dice are rolled. The probability of getting an
even number when you roll a die is 50% because three
out of six numbers in a die are even numbers (three out
of six is also equal to -half).
 Punnet
Square
Experiment
s
Module 6
 Punnet Square
Experiments

Mendel's experiments involved the use of the Punnett

square, which is why you must learn to use it as well. In
a Punnett square, gametes produced by the parents are
written on the outer sides (the top and the left sides) of
the square. The possible gene combinations
are represented inside the square. Capital letters
represent the dominant alleles, and the
lowercase letters represent the recessive alleles.
Monohybrid
Cross
Module 6
 Monohybrid
Cross
A cross between parents that differ in one trait is
a monohybrid cross. The following Punnett square
shows a monohybrid cross between two plants. For
example, the allele that codes for a yellow-colored
flower (Y) is dominant over the allele that codes for a
green-colored flower (y). Both parents (represented on
top and on the left side of the square) contain
heterozygous alleles that code for a yellow-colored
flower (Yy). For a monohybrid cross, there are two kinds
of gametes produced in reference to the allele being
studied Y and y.
 Monohybrid
Cross
Y y

Y YY Yy
(Yellow) (Yellow)

y Yy yy
(Yellow) (Green)
 Monohybrid
Cross

Each square in the Punnett square signifies a 25%

chance of the genotype and phenotype of the offspring.
The results in the Punnett square show that the
genotypes and phenotypes are not the same for all
offspring. The Punnett square shows that 25% contains
the YY genotype 50% contains the Yy genotype, and the
remaining 25% contains the yy genotype.
 Monohybrid
Cross
● This means that an offspring has more chances of
getting a heterozygous genotype (Yy) because the
Punnett square shows a 50% probability for it. On the
other hand, there is a 75% probability that
the offspring's phenotype will show a dominant trait,
whereas the remaining 25% will show : recessive
trait. This means that, from the example, an offspring
has a 75% chance of having the trait for the yellow
flower, and an offspring has only a 25% chance of
getting the trait for the green flower.
 Monohybrid
Cross

● Genotypic ratio (GR) = 1 YY:2 Yy: 1

yy or 1:2:1
● Phenotypic ratio (PR) =3 yellow: 1
green or 3:1
 Monohybrid
Cross

In Humans browns eyes are dominant

over blue eyes. What type of
offspring would you expect if the
father is heterozygous and the
mother is homozygous recessive?
 Monohybrid
Cross
B b

b Bb bb
(Brown) (blue)

b Bb bb
(Brown) (blue)
 Monohybrid
Cross

● Genotypic ratio (GR) = 2 Bb:2bb

or 2:2
● Phenotypic ratio (PR) =2 brown: 2
blue or 2:2
Dihybrid
Cross
Module 6
 Dihybrid
Cross
Two contrasting traits between parents can also be
crossed to determine the genotype and the phenotype
of their offspring. This can be solved using a dihybrid
cross For example, each parent has two sets of genes,
with each gene containing alleles for hair color and eye
color. For the hair color, the allele for black hair (A) is
dominant over the allele for blonde hair (a). For the eye
color, the allele for brown eyes (B) is dominant over the
allele for blue eyes (b).
 Dihybrid
Cross

A father has black hair (Aa) and brown eyes (Bb), and
the mother has black hair (Aa) and brown eyes too (Bb).
Both are heterozygous for the two traits. What are the
phenotypic and the genotypic ratios?
Steps in
Dihybrid
Cross
Module 6
 Dihybrid
Cross

● Identify the genotypes of the parents.

Father (AaBb) - heterozygous black hair (Aa) and

heterozygous brown eyes (Bb)

Mother (AaBb) - heterozygous black hair (Aa) and

heterozygous brown eyes (Bb)
 Dihybrid
Cross

Determine the possible gamete combinations.

Father- AB, Ab, aB, ab

Mother- AB, Ab, aB, ab

 Dihybrid
Cross
Write the possible gamete combinations of the parents
on the top and on the left side of the
AB Ab aB ab
AB
Ab
aB
ab
 Dihybrid
Cross
Pair gametes inside the box

AB Ab aB ab

AB AABB AABb AaBB AaBb

Ab AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb

aB AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb

ab AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb

 Dihybrid
Cross
Write the Phenotype in each box
AB Ab aB ab
AB AABB AABb AaBB AaBb
(black hair (black hair and (black hair (black hair and
and brown brown eyes) and brown brown eyes)
eyes) eyes)
Ab AABb AAbb AaBb Aabb
(black hair (black hair and (black hair (black hair and
and brown blue eyes) and brown blue eyes)
eyes) eyes)
aB AaBB AaBb aaBB aaBb
(black hair (black hair and (blonde hair (blonde hair and
and brown brown eyes) and brown brown eyes)
eyes) eyes)
ab AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb
(black hair (black hair and (blonde hair (blonde hair and
and brown blue eyes) and brown blue eyes)
eyes) eyes)
 Dihybrid
Cross
● Identify the genotypic and the phenotypic ratios.

GR= 1AABB: 2 AABb : 1 AAbb:2 AaBB:4 AaBb: 2 Aabb:1

aaBB:2 aaBb : 1 aabb (1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1)

PR = 9 black hair and brown eyes:3 black hair and blue

eyes :3 blonde hair and brown eyes:1 blonde hair and
blue eyes (9:3:3:1)
 Dihybrid
Cross

In Guinea Pigs, rough coat is dominant to smooth coats;

and short hair is dominant over long hair. Cross a
guinea pig Homozygous for a rough coat and short hair
with a guinea pig with a smooth coat and long hair.
After doing the cross, write the expected genotypic and
phenotypic ratios of the offspring.
 Dihybrid
Cross

Some dogs bark when trailing, others are silent. The

barking trait is due to a dominant gene. Standing ears
are dominant to drooping ears. Show the cross between
a heterozygous standing-eared barker, and a
homozygous droopy eared silent trailer.
 Mendel’s
Law of
Inheritance
Module 6
The Law of
Dominance
Module 6
 Law of
Dominance

Mendel's third law of inheritance has something to do

with dominance. A trait is said to be dominant if it
is expressed in spite of the presence of another allele.
For example, the Rr gene contains a dominant gene for
the round seed shape (R) and a recessive gene for the
wrinkled seed shape (r).
 Law of
Dominance
Thus, the round seed shape is manifested because it is
the dominant allele. The law of dominance states that
some alleles are dominant, whereas others
are recessive. An organism with a dominant allele for a
certain trait will always express that trait. However, an
organism with a recessive allele for a particular trait will
express that trait only if the dominant allele is not
present.
 Law of
Segregation
Module 6
 Law of
Segregation

Mendel's law of segregation describes what happens to

the alleles during the formation of gametes. According
to this law, an individual has a pair of alleles for each
trait. During gamete formation, the alleles in the pair
separate, such that each gamete receives only one
allele for the trait.
 Law of
Segregation

For example, a pea plant contains a gene for seed

shape in which both alleles code for round. This
condition can be represented by RR, which indicates
that the two letters are both alleles that code for the
round shape of the seed. Another pea plant with round
seeds may have a different combination of alleles.
 Law of
Segregation
In this case, it is represented by R, with the capital
letter R representing the allele for the round shape and
the lowercase r representing the allele for the wrinkled
shape. Each parent passes an allele at random to the
offspring. It is only upon gamete formation that the
alleles are segregated. The parents with the alleles Tr
can be seen with gametes segregated into the
uppercase T (tall) and the lowercase t (short).
 Law of
Segregation
 The Law of
Independent
Assortment
Module 6
 Law of
Independent
Assortment
The law of independent assortment states that alleles
segregate independently during the formation of
gametes. The genes do not influence one another on
how they are sorted. This law can be represented by
Mendel's dihybrid experiment.
 Law of
Independent
Assortment
 Law of
Independent
In the first part, he crossed the plants that have round,
Assortment
yellow peas (represented by the homozygous genotype
AABB) with plants that have wrinkled, green peas
(represented by the homozygous genotype aabb). All of
the F1 offspring have round, yellow peas (represented
by the heterozygous genotype AaBb). This shows that
the alleles that code for the round shape and for the
yellow color of the peas are dominant over the alleles
that code for the wrinkled shape and for the green color
of the peas.
 Law of
Independent
However, this part only provides the hybrid plants
needed for the next cross. Mendel Assortment
then crossed F
1
plants to each other to create the F2 generation of
plants. Note that each plant in the F1 generation was
formed by the fusion of gametes that have both
homozygous alleles (AABB and aabb). As a result of his
experiment, he found out that the members of the F,
generation have phenotypes not found in the F, plants.
This shows that the alleles that code for seed
shape segregated independently from those that code
for seed color..
Modifications on
Mendel's Classic
Ratios
Module 6
 Modifications on
Mendel's Classic
Ratios
Not all patterns of inheritance can be described using
Mendel's laws. Sometimes, inheritance patterns are
more complicated than simple dominance. For example,
not all offspring express purely dominant and recessive
alleles. Some offspring with heterozygous traits express
traits that are intermediate between the traits of their
homozygous parents.
 Modifications on
Mendel's Classic
Ratios
On the other hand, there are also alleles that are both
expressed in the organism. Some individuals may also
have genes that contain more than two alleles. These
modes of inheritance are sometimes called non-
Mendelian genetics. All of these are tackled in the next
topics.
Incomplete
Dominance
Module 6
 Incomplete
Dominance
Incomplete dominance happens when one allele is not
completely dominant over the other allele. Incomplete
dominance often shows a heterozygous phenotype that
is intermediate between the two homozygous
phenotypes. This means that the traits have blended in
the offspring. For example, a cross between two four-o'
lock plants (Mirabilis) shows an interesting result. If a
red-flowered (RR) plant is crossed with a white-flowered
(rr) plant, the resulting offspring are pink-flowered (Rr)
plants.
Incomplete
Dominance
Codominance

Module 6
 Codominance

Somewhat similar to incomplete dominance is the

principle of codominance. In codominance, both alleles
contribute to the phenotype of an organism. An
example can be observed in cattle, wherein the allele
for red hair in cattle (R) is codominant with the allele
for white hair (W). If both alleles are present in the
offspring, a roan or pinkish-brown appearance shows
(RW). Roan is basically a combination of both the red
and the white hairs.
Incomplete
Dominance
 Codominance

Another notable example of codominance can be seen

in certain varieties of chickens. The allele for black
feathers (B) is codominant with the allele for white
feathers (W). If these alleles are crossed, the offspring
would appear speckled (BW) with black and white
feathers.
Codominance
Multiple
Alleles
Module 6
 Multiple
Alleles

This type of inheritance involves having more than two

phenotypes for a particular trait, which happens when
an organism has more than two alleles for the trait.
Thus, you can observe a mixture of dominant alleles.
For example, the coat color in rabbits can be
determined using four different alleles as shown below.
These four alleles can be combined in different ways.
Multiple
Alleles
 Multiple
Alleles

Another good example of multiple alleles is seen in the

human blood type. Humans have four different blood
types: A, B, AB, and O: Their alleles are shown in table
below
Multiple
Alleles
 Multiple
Alleles

Note that you have only two of these alleles in your

genotype. One allele came from your mother, and the
other came from your father. Among the three alleles,
the allele i for blood type O is recessive to the alleles for
blood types A and B. The different alleles can have
these possible genotypes and phenotypes, as shown in
the table.
 Multiple
Alleles
As seen in table, six genotypes and four phenotypes
can be derived from the three alleles of the human
blood type. There are two possible genotypes each for
blood types A and B, wherein one genotype is
homozygous (IAIA or IBIB ) and the other one is
heterozygous (IAi or IBi). Blood type AB, however,
contains two different alleles (IAIB), and blood type O
contains two recessive alleles (ii).
Modern
Genetics
Module 6
Pedigree
Analysis
Module 6
 Pedigree
Analysis

One of the very important tools in studying human

genetics and patterns of inheritance is the pedigree
chart. The pedigree chart is similar to a family tree. It
uses symbols that show one's family history. It also
shows the family relations and the phenotypes of each
member.
Pedigree
Analysis
 Pedigree
Analysis

Understanding the pedigree chart will help you identify

relevant medical facts about certain traits or diseases,
as well as the family history. You can use the pedigree
chart to note the genetic disorders that some family
members have. Thus, you can somehow predict if
the offspring would have a good chance of inheriting
the genetic disorder if one of the parents has that trait.
 Genetic
Recombinati
on
Module 6
 Genetic
Recombination
Genetic recombination is the process of recombining
genes to produce offspring with traits that are different
from those of their parents. This involves the exchange
of genetic material, either between multiple
chromosomes or between different regions of the same
chromosome. The chromosomes that are passed on to
the offspring are combinations of the chromosomes of
the parents. It can be observed that two chromosomes
in each pair swap parts of their DNA.
 Genetic
Recombination
 Sex
Linkage
Module 6
 Sex
Linkage

Sex linkage is a special pattern of inheritance. It applies

to genes that are located on the sex chromosomes. Sex
hormones determine if an individual is male or female.
Females receive to X chromosome, one form each
parent. Males, however, get an X chromosome from
their mother and Y chromosome from their father.
 Sex
Linkage
 Sex
Linkage

Different kinds of sex-linked genes are found on the X

chromosome. Because of further studies involving sex
chromosomes, more than 100 sex-linked genetic
disorders have now been mapped and classified on the
X chromosome. The Y chromosome is smaller than the
X chromosome, and it contains only a few genes.
 Sex
Linkage
Color Vision
Deficiency
(CVD)
Module 6
 Color Vision
Deficiency

One of the genetic disorders associated with sex-linkage

is color vision deficiency
(CVD), which is the inability to distinguish certain colors.
Three human genes associated with color vision are
located on the X chromosome. A defective version of at
least one of these genes can produce CVD.
Color Vision
Deficiency
 Color Vision
Deficiency

This disorder is mostly associated with males because

they have only one X chromosome. If the X
chromosome received from the mother contains the
defective gene. males will automatically have CVD.
However, for females to express this deficiency,
there must be two copies of the defective allele, one on
each of the two X chromosomes.
 Color Vision
Deficiency
Having two copies of the X chromosome is an
adaptation for females, because if one chromosome
has a defective allele for a certain disorder, the other
functional copy can often work well enough on its own,
therefore preventing the genetic disorder to be
manifested or expressed. When a female carrier for CVD
breeds with a male with normal vision, the following is
demonstrated
Hemophilia

Module 6
 Hemophilia

Another example of a sex-linked disorder is hemophilia.

This is a disorder related to blood clotting. The gene
that codes for an important protein necessary for blood
clotting is missing in a person with hemophilia. People
with this kind of disorder can bleed to death from just
having minor cuts; they may also suffer internal
bleeding from bumps or bruises.
Color Vision
Deficiency
Duchenne
Muscular
Dystrophy
Module 6
 Duchenne
Muscular
Dystrophy
Duchenne muscular dystrophy is another sex-linked
disorder. A person with this kind of genetic disorder
suffers progressive weakening and loss of skeletal
muscle. They do not live normally beyond early
adulthood.
 Duchenne
Muscular
Dystrophy
The reason for this kind of disorder is a defective
version of the gene that codes for a muscle protein.
Males are mostly affected by this disorder.
The progressive muscle degeneration and weakness
causes the muscle tissues to break down over time.
These are eventually replaced by fatty deposits. The
main symptom of a person with this disorder is muscle
weakness accompanied by difficulties with motor skills.
Duchenne
Muscular
Dystrophy
Generalization

Module 6
 Generalization
Genetics is a very fascinating field because it has plenty
of practical applications.
Genetics have enabled people to understand the basis
for the traits acquired from the previous generation.
Genetics explains a lot of things. Studying genetics can
help us know details about our own health; thus, we can
make healthy choices. Also, studying genetics can give
us vast knowledge about how to improve the
productivity of certain domesticated plant species that
are economically important to us. Genetics plays a big
role in our society. By having an in-depth understanding
of genetics, we can really learn a lot of things that will
help us survive.
Thank you!

Module 6