[Link].

in

MODULE - 3
HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO DESIGNS
•
(QUALITATIVE)
Brain as a CPU system (architecture, CNS and Peripheral Nervous System, signal transmission, EEG,
Robotic arms for prosthetics. Engineering solutions for Parkinson’s disease).
• Eye as a Camera system (architecture of rod and cone cells, optical corrections, cataract, lens materials,
bionic eye).
• Heart as a pump system (architecture, electrical signalling - ECG monitoring and heart related issues,
reasons for blockages of blood vessels, design of stents, pace makers, defibrillators).
• Lungs as purification system (architecture, gas exchange mechanisms, spirometry, abnormal lung
physiology - COPD, Ventilators, Heart-lung machine).
Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 1
• Kidney as a filtration system (architecture, mechanism of filtration, CKD, dialysis systems)
 BRAIN AS A CPU

Brain

Dept. of BT
Click to Edit

Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 2

 THE BRAIN
• The brain is the most complex organ in the human body. It is responsible for
everything we do, from thinking and feeling to moving and breathing. The brain is
made up of billions of neurons, which are connected to each other by trillions of
synapses. These connections allow the brain to process information and
generate thoughts, emotions, and actions.
• Here are the major parts of the brain and their functions:
• Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher functions like
Dept. of BT thinking, learning, memory, and sensory processing. It can be further divided into
Click to Edit four lobes, each with specific functions:
• Frontal lobe: Located at the front of the brain, the frontal lobe is involved in planning,
decision-making, problem-solving, judgment, and personality.
• Temporal lobe: Located on the sides of the brain, the temporal lobe is responsible for
processing sound, including hearing and music. It also plays a role in memory, emotion,
and language comprehension.
• Parietal lobe: Located at the top of the brain, the parietal lobe is responsible for
processing sensory information from the body, such as touch, pain, and temperature. It
also plays a role in spatial awareness and navigation.
• Occipital lobe:
KrithikaLocated at theof back
Dept of theAITbrain, the occipital lobe is responsible for
Biotechnology, 3
processing visual information, such as sight and color.
 THE BRAIN
• Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, below the
cerebrum, the cerebellum coordinates movement,
balance, and posture. It also plays a role in learning and
motor skills.
• Brainstem: The brainstem is the lower part of the brain
that connects to the spinal cord. It controls basic
functions like breathing, heart rate, and sleep-wake
cycles.
• Thalamus: The thalamus acts as a relay station, routing
sensory information to different parts of the brain. It also
plays a role in sleep, alertness, and emotion.
Dept. of BT • Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a small region
Click to Edit located below the thalamus. It is responsible for
regulating many important bodily functions, such as
hunger, thirst, body temperature, and hormone release.
• Limbic system: The limbic system is a group of
structures located deep within the brain. It is involved in
processing emotions, memory, and motivation.
• The brain is an incredibly complex organ that we are still
learning more about. However, by understanding the
different parts ofKrithika
the brain and
Depttheir functions,
of Biotechnology, AIT we can 4
gain a greater appreciation for this amazing organ.
KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
BRAIN AND COMPUTER
• The brain can have 100 teraflops of memory with a density
of 107 circuits per cm3 while computer memory has the 100
million megabytes with a density of 1014 bits per cm3.
Memory in brain grows instantly just by connecting synaptic
link whereas in a computer to scale the memory the chips
need to be added.
• Brain has the inbuilt backup system where the functioning
pathways replace the damaged pathways. As against,
backup systems are constructed manually in a computer.
• The energy consumption in the brain is less than the
computer.
• To store information the brain uses electrochemical and
Dept. of BT electromagnetic form. Conversely, in a computer, the
Click to Edit information is stored in the symbolic and numeric form.
• In the brain, the information is transmitted with the help of
chemicals to fire action potential in the neurons. On the
contrary, the computer uses electrically coded signals to
transmit the data.
• The processing power of the brain is unlimited and provides
online processing, but the brain processes information at
slow speed because neurons are slow in action. In contrast,
the processing power of computers is significant because of
fast transistors.
• The brain is self-organised
Krithikawhile the computer is
Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 5
preprogrammed structure.
 CNS and PNS
• The Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS) are the two main components of the nervous system in the human
body.
• The Central Nervous System consists of the brain and spinal cord and is
responsible for receiving, processing, and integrating sensory
information and transmitting commands to the rest of the body. The brain
acts as the command center, receiving and processing sensory inputs
and generating motor outputs, while the spinal cord acts as a relay
center, transmitting information between the brain and peripheral nerves.
• The Peripheral Nervous System, on the other hand, consists of all the
Click to Edit
nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for
transmitting sensory information from the periphery of the body (such as
the skin, muscles, and organs) to the CNS, and transmitting commands
from the CNS to the periphery. The PNS can be further divided into the
somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
• The somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements, while the
autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions such as heart
rate, digestion,
Krithika and respiration.
Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 6
Click to Edit

Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 7

 Signal Transmission
• Signal transmission in the brain occurs through the firing of nerve cells,
or neurons.
• A neuron receives inputs from other neurons at its dendrites, integrates
the information, and then generates an electrical impulse, or action
potential, that travels down its axon to the synaptic terminals.
• At the synaptic terminals, the neuron releases chemical
neurotransmitters, which cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptors
on the postsynaptic neuron, leading to the initiation of another action
potential in the postsynaptic neuron.
• This process of transmitting information from one neuron to another is
Click to Edit known as synaptic transmission and forms the basis of communication
within the brain. Different types of neurotransmitters have different
effects on postsynaptic neurons, and the balance of neurotransmitter
levels can influence brain function, including mood, learning, and
memory.
• Signal transmission in the brain is also influenced by various forms of
synaptic plasticity, including long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term
depression (LTD),
Krithika which
Deptcan modifyAITthe strength of synaptic connections
of Biotechnology, 8
and contribute to learning and memory processes.
 THE NERVE CELL

SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
Click to Edit

Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 9

 Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• EEG stands for electroencephalogram, which is a non-invasive method for measuring
the electrical activity of the brain.
• An EEG records the electrical signals generated by the brain's neurons as they
communicate with each other.
• The signals are recorded through electrodes placed on the scalp and the resulting EEG
pattern provides information about the synchronized electrical activity of large
populations of neurons.
• This activity shows up as wavy lines on an EEG recording. An EEG is one of the main
diagnostic tests for epilepsy. An EEG can also play a role in diagnosing other brain
disorders. An EEG might also be helpful for diagnosing or treating:
• Brain tumors
• Brain damage from head injury
Click to Edit • Brain dysfunction that can have a variety of causes (encephalopathy)
• Sleep disorders
• Inflammation of the brain (herpes encephalitis)
• Stroke
• Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
• Voltage fluctuations measured by the EEG bioamplifier and electrodes allow the
evaluation of normal brain activity including the posterior dominant rhythm (PDR), first
described by Hans Berger. EEG can detect abnormal electrical discharges such as sharp
waves, spikes or spike-and-wave complexes that are seen in people with epilepsy, thus
it is often used to inform the Dept
Krithika
medical diagnosis.
of Biotechnology, AIT 10
Click to Edit

Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 11

Click to Edit

Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 12

 Applications of EEG
• Some of the most common applications of EEG are:
• Diagnosis of Epilepsy: EEG is a widely used tool to diagnose epilepsy and other seizure
disorders. It can detect abnormal electrical activity in the brain, which can help to confirm
the diagnosis and determine the location of the seizure focus.
• Sleep Studies: EEG is often used in sleep studies to evaluate sleep patterns and diagnose
sleep disorders.
• Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI): EEG can be used to control external devices such as
prosthetic limbs or computer software. This is done by detecting specific brain waves
associated with a particular mental state, such as concentration or relaxation.
• Research on Brain Function: EEG is used in research to study brain function during various
activities such as reading, problem-solving, and decision-making. EEG can also be used to
investigate how the brain responds to stimuli such as light, sound, and touch.
• Diagnosis of Brain Disorders: EEG can be used to diagnose a wide range of brain disorders
Click to Edit including dementia, Parkinson's disease, and traumatic brain injury.
• Anesthesia Monitoring: EEG can be used to monitor the depth of anesthesia during surgery
to ensure that the patient remains in a safe and comfortable state.
• Monitoring Brain Activity during Coma: EEG is also used to monitor brain activity in patients
who are in a coma to determine the level of brain function and assess the likelihood of
recovery.
• It is one of the few mobile techniques available and offers millisecond-range temporal
resolution which is not possible with CT, PET or MRI.
Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 13
 Robotic Arms for Prosthetics

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Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 14

Prosthetic hand development process
 Robotic Arms for Prosthetics
• Robotic prosthetic limb is a well-established research area that integrates
advanced mechatronics, intelligent sensing, and control for achieving
higher order lost sensorimotor functions while maintaining the physical
appearance of amputated limb.
• Robotic prosthetic limbs are expected to replace the missing limbs of an
amputee restoring the lost functions and providing aesthetic appearance.
• The main aspects are enhanced social interaction, comfortable amputee’s
life, and productive amputee to the society.
• With the advancement of sensor technology, in the last few decades
significant contributions have been made in this area. Most current robotic
Click to Edit prostheses work by recording from the surface of the skin electrical signals
from muscles left intact after an amputation.
• Some amputees can guide their artificial hand by contracting muscles
remaining in the forearm that would have controlled their fingers. Robotic
arms can be used to automate the process of placing goods or products
onto pallets.
• By automating the process, palletizing becomes more accurate, cost-
effective, and predictable. The use of robotic arms also frees human
workers from performing
Krithika
tasks that present a risk of bodily injury. 15
Dept of Biotechnology, AIT
Click to Edit

BMIs have the advantage of providing a direct and intuitive connection between the user's brain and the prosthetic,
allowing for a high level of control and precision. Additionally, BMIs can be used to provide sensory feedback to the user,
allowing them to experience the sensation of touch through the prosthetic. However, BMIs can be complex and invasive
systems, requiring surgical implantation and ongoing maintenance to ensure proper function. Additionally, they may not be
suitable for individuals with conditions that affect brain activity or who are unable to generate strong enough brain signals
to control the prosthetic effectively. Ongoing research and development is aimed at improving the performance and
accessibility of BMIs, as well Krithika
as increasing their ease
Dept of use and AIT
of Biotechnology, reliability. 16
 Engineering Solutions for Parkinson’s Disease
• Parkinson's disease is a progressive disorder that affects the nervous system and the parts of the body controlled
by the nerves. Symptoms start slowly. The first symptom may be a barely noticeable tremor in just one hand.
Tremors are common, but the disorder may also cause stiffness or slowing of movement.
• In Parkinson's disease, certain nerve cells (neurons) in the brain gradually break down or die. Many of the
symptoms are due to a loss of neurons that produce a chemical messenger in your brain called dopamine. When
dopamine levels decrease, it causes atypical brain activity, leading to impaired movement and other symptoms of
Parkinson's disease.
• Parkinson's disease can't be cured, but medications can help control the symptoms, often dramatically. In some
more advanced cases, surgery may be advised. Your health care provider may also recommend lifestyle changes,
especially ongoing aerobic exercise.
• ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS TO THIS DISEASE ARE:
• Deep Brain Stimulation - Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) involves surgically implanting a neurotransmitter that
sends electrical impulses to specific areas of your brain. This procedure has helped many people with Parkinson's
reduce symptoms such as tremor, rigidity, and [Link] are six main types of medications available to
treat symptoms of Parkinson disease :levodopa, dopamine agonists, and inhibitors of enzymes that inactivate
Click to Edit dopamine (monoamineoxidase type B [MAO B] inhibitors and catechol-O-methyl transferase [COMT] inhibitors,
anticholinergic drugs, and amantadine.
• ENGINEERING NEURONS are another treatment method for this. Transplantation of embryonic neurons can
restore functional dopaminergic neurons in the brains of patients with Parkinson's disease. But while promising,
cell transplantation therapy is still out of reach to most patients, in part because of the inaccessibility of human
embryonic tissue.
• Exoskeletons: Exoskeletons are wearable devices that provide support and assistance for individuals with mobility
issues. Some exoskeletons have been developed specifically for people with Parkinson's disease, and can help to
improve balance, reduce tremors, and increase overall mobility.
• Telerehabilitation: Telerehabilitation involves the use of telecommunication technology to provide physical
therapy and rehabilitation services to individuals with Parkinson's disease, without the need for in-person visits to
a therapist.
Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 17
 EYE AS A CAMERA

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Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 18

 EYE AS A CAMERA
• The human eye can be analogized to a camera system, as both
the eye and a camera capture light and convert it into an image.
The main components of the eye that correspond to a camera
system include:
• • The Cornea: This transparent outer layer of the eye functions like
a camera lens, bending light to focus it onto the retina.
• • The Iris: The iris functions like the diaphragm in a camera,
controlling the amount of light that enters the eye.
Click to Edit
• • The Pupil: The pupil functions like the aperture in a camera,
adjusting the size to control the amount of light entering the eye.
• • The Retina: The retina functions like the camera film or sensor,
capturing the light and converting it into electrical signals that are
sent to the brain.
• • The Optic Nerve: The optic nerve functions like the cable
connecting the camera to a computer, transmitting the electrical
Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 19
signals from the retina to the brain.
 EYE V/S CAMERA
EYE CAMERA

Retina and Film/Sensor: The retina is a layer of light-sensitive Film (in analog cameras) or a digital
cells at the back of the eye. It sensor (in digital cameras) captures
converts light into electrical signals, light and records the image. In digital
which are sent to the brain via the cameras, the sensor converts light
optic nerve. into electronic signals, which are
processed into digital images.
Image Processing The brain processes signals from the In digital cameras, an image
retina to form a coherent visual processor handles the data from the
image. This processing includes sensor, adjusting for color balance,
adjustments for color, brightness, exposure, and other factors before
and motion, as well as integration saving the final image file.
with memory and other sensory
information.

Click to Edit Field of View The human eye has a wide field of The field of view of a camera
view, with peripheral vision extending depends on the lens used. Wide-
to about 180 degrees horizontally angle lenses capture a broad scene,
and 135 degrees vertically. while telephoto lenses focus on a
narrower field.
Resolution The resolution of the human eye is The resolution of a camera is defined
determined by the density of by the number of pixels on the
photoreceptor cells in the retina. The sensor. Higher resolution sensors
central part of the retina, the fovea, capture more detail.
is responsible for sharp central
vision.
Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 20
 ARCHITECTURE OF RODS AND CONES
Rod Cells:
• Shape: Rods are elongated, cylindrical cells.
• Location: They are primarily located in the peripheral regions of
the retina.
• Function: Rods are highly sensitive to low light levels and are
responsible for scotopic (night) vision. They do not detect color.
• Structure:
• Outer Segment:
• Contains stacks of membranous discs filled with the
photopigment rhodopsin.
• The discs increase the surface area for capturing
photons.
Click to Edit • Inner Segment:
• Contains the cell's metabolic machinery, including
mitochondria, ribosomes, and the Golgi apparatus.
• Connects to the outer segment via a connecting cilium.
• Cell Body (Nucleus):
• Houses the cell’s nucleus.
• Synaptic Terminal:
• Forms synapses with bipolar and horizontal cells.
• Releases neurotransmitters
Krithika inDept
response to light
of Biotechnology, AIT 21
stimulation.
 ARCHITECTURE OF RODS AND CONES
Cone Cells:
Cones are active at higher light levels (photopic vision), are capable of color vision and
are responsible for high spatial acuity.
The central fovea is populated exclusively by cones.
There are 3 types of cones which we will refer to as the short-wavelength sensitive
cones, the middlewavelength sensitive cones and the long-wavelength sensitive
cones or S-cone, M-cones, and Lcones for short.
Shape: Cones are shorter and tapering cells, resembling a cone.
Location: Concentrated in the fovea, the central part of the retina, but present
throughout the retina.
Function: Cones are responsible for photopic (daylight) vision and color vision. They are
less sensitive to low light levels compared to rods.
Structure:
Outer Segment:
Click to Edit Contains fewer, but larger, membranous discs compared to rods.
Discs are filled with different types of photopigments (photopsins), each sensitive
to different wavelengths of light (S-cones for blue, M-cones for green, and L
cones for red).
Inner Segment:
Similar to rods, contains the cell’s metabolic machinery.
Connects to the outer segment via a connecting cilium.
Cell Body (Nucleus):
Houses the cell’s nucleus
Synaptic Terminal:
Krithika Forms synapses
Dept of withAIT
Biotechnology, bipolar and horizontal cells 22
Releases neurotransmitters in response to light stimulation.
Click to Edit

Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 23

 Optical Corrections
Optical corrections address refractive errors in the eye, improving vision through various
means:
• Glasses:
• Lenses correct refractive errors such as myopia (nearsightedness), hypermetropia
(farsightedness), astigmatism, and presbyopia.
• Types of Lenses: Single vision, bifocal, trifocal, and progressive lenses.
• Contact Lenses:
• Soft Contact Lenses: Made of flexible plastic that allows oxygen to pass through to
the cornea.
• Rigid Gas Permeable (RGP) Lenses: Made of durable plastic that transmits
oxygen and provides clear vision.
Click to Edit • Specialized Lens
Refractive Surgery:
• LASIK (Laser-Assisted In Situ Keratomileusis): Reshapes the cornea to correct
myopia, hypermetropia, and astigmatism.
• PRK (Photorefractive Keratectomy): Similar to LASIK but reshapes the cornea's
surface.
• SMILE (Small Incision Lenticule Extraction): Uses a laser to create a lenticule
(small piece of tissue) in the cornea, which is then removed to reshape the cornea.
Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 24
 Optical defects and their corrections
• Refractive errors occur when light entering the eye is not properly focused on the retina,
leading to blurred vision. There are several types of refractive errors, including:
• Myopia (nearsightedness): Light is focused in front of the retina, making distant objects
appear blurry.
• Hyperopia (farsightedness): Light is focused behind the retina, making near objects appear
blurry.
• Astigmatism: Light is not focused evenly on the retina, leading to blurred or distorted vision.

Click to Edit

Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 25

 CATARACT

Click to Edit

Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 26

 Cataract
A cataract is a clouding of the eye's natural lens, leading to decreased vision. As the cataract continues to
develop, the clouding becomes denser. A cataract scatters and blocks the light as it passes through the lens,
preventing a sharply defined image from reaching your retina. As a result, your vision becomes blurred.
Cataracts generally develop in both eyes, but not always at the same rate. The cataract in one eye may be
more advanced than the other, causing a difference in vision between eyes. Cataracts may be partial or
complete, stationary or progressive, hard or soft.
• Causes:
• Aging
• Trauma
• Radiation exposure
• Certain medications (e.g., corticosteroids)
• Diseases (e.g., diabetes)
• Symptoms:
• Blurred vision
• Glare and halos around lights
Click to Edit • Faded colors
• Difficulty with night vision
• Frequent changes in eyeglass prescription
• Treatment:
• Cataract Surgery: The cloudy lens is removed and replaced with an artificial intraocular lens (IOL).
• Types of IOLs: Monofocal, multifocal, and toric lenses.
• The main types of age-related cataracts are nuclear sclerosis, cortical, and posterior subcapsular.
• Nuclear sclerosis is the most common type of cataract, and involves the central or 'nuclear' part of the lens.
• This eventually becomes hard, or 'sclerotic', due to condensation on the lens nucleus and the deposition of
brown pigment within the lens.
Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 27
 •
Common Types of Cataracts
Age related is by far the most common type of cataract and it is divided into 3 types based on the
anatomy of the human lens. There are Nuclear Sclerotic, Cortical and Posterior Subcapsular
Cataracts. Patients commonly develop opacity in more than one area of their lens which can cause
overlap in the classification of cataracts.
• Nuclear sclerosis is the yellowing and hardening of the central portion of the crystalline lens and it
occurs slowly over years. As the core of the lens hardens, it often causes the lens to increase the
refractive power and causes nearsightedness. This type of cataract can also cause colors to be less
vibrant although the change is so gradual that it is often not noticed.
• Cortical cataracts occur when the portion of lens fibers surrounding the nucleus become opacified.
The most common symptom from cortical cataracts is glare, especially from headlights while night
driving.
• Posterior subcapsular cataracts (PSC) are opacities located in the most posterior cortical
layer, directly under the lens capsule. This type of cataract tends to occur in younger patients than
cortical or nuclear sclerotic cataracts. Progression is variable but tends to occur more rapidly than in
nuclear sclerosis. Symptoms are glare, difficulty seeing in bright light, and near vision is often more
affected than distance.

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Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 28

 LENS MATERIALS
Lens materials for both intraocular lenses (IOLs) used in cataract surgery and contact lenses are critical for
achieving optimal vision correction and comfort. Here’s a detailed overview of the materials used for each
type:
Intraocular Lens (IOL) Materials
• Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA):
• Characteristics: Rigid plastic, durable, and clear.
• Advantages: Biocompatible and provides excellent optical clarity.
• Disadvantages: Requires a larger incision for implantation since it is not foldable.
• Silicone:
• Characteristics: Flexible, foldable material.
• Advantages: Allows for smaller incisions during cataract surgery, reducing recovery time and risk of
complications.
• Disadvantages: Higher risk of posterior capsule opacification (secondary cataract) and potential for glistening
(microvacuoles that can affect vision).
• Acrylic:
Click to Edit • Types: Hydrophobic acrylic and hydrophilic acrylic.
• Hydrophobic Acrylic:
• Advantages: Lower incidence of posterior capsule opacification, foldable, and provides excellent optical clarity.
• Disadvantages: Can be more expensive and some patients report glare and halos.
• Hydrophilic Acrylic:
• Advantages: Foldable and easier to handle during surgery.
• Disadvantages: Higher risk of posterior capsule opacification compared to hydrophobic acrylic.
• Collamer:
• Characteristics: A proprietary material combining collagen and polymer.
• Advantages: Highly biocompatible, offers excellent optical clarity, and reduces the risk of glare and halos.
Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 30
• Disadvantages: Higher cost and limited availability compared to other materials.
 LENS MATERIALS
Contact Lens Materials
• Soft Contact Lenses:
• Hydrogel:
• Characteristics: Made from water-containing polymers, flexible, and comfortable.
• Advantages: High water content makes them comfortable and breathable.
• Disadvantages: Lower oxygen permeability compared to newer materials.
• Silicone Hydrogel:
• Characteristics: Combines silicone for higher oxygen permeability with hydrogel for comfort.
• Advantages: Higher oxygen transmission, better for long-term wear.
• Disadvantages: Can be more expensive and may require adaptation for some users.
• Rigid Gas Permeable (RGP) Lenses:
• Materials: Made from durable plastic that allows oxygen to pass through.
• Advantages: Provide excellent vision correction, especially for astigmatism and keratoconus, and have
Click to Edit a longer lifespan than soft lenses.
• Disadvantages: Less comfortable initially, requiring an adaptation period.
• Hybrid Contact Lenses:
• Materials: Combine an RGP center with a soft outer skirt.
• Advantages: Offer the visual clarity of RGP lenses with the comfort of soft lenses.
• Disadvantages: Can be more expensive and may require special care.
• Hydrophobic acrylic: Hydrophobic acrylic is a type of acrylic material that has a special
surface treatment that helps to reduce glare and halos around lights.
• Hydrophilic acrylic: Hydrophilic acrylic is a type of acrylic material that is designed to be
more compatible with the natural Dept
Krithika fluid in the eye,
of Biotechnology, AITreducing the risk of vision-threatening
31
 BIONIC EYE

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Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 32

 BIONIC EYE
• A bionic eye, also known as a retinal implant,
is a type of prosthetic device that is
surgically implanted into the eye to help
restore vision to people who have lost their
sight due to certain conditions such as
retinitis pigmentosa or age-related macular
degeneration.
• The device typically consists of a camera, a
processor, and an electrode array that is
attached to the retina. The camera captures
images and sends signals to the processor,
which then transmits electrical stimulation
Click to Edit to the electrodes in the retina to stimulate
the remaining healthy cells and restore
vision. The restored vision is not perfect, but
it can help people with vision loss to perform
daily tasks more easily and safely.
• It is an expensive treatment and not
everyone can afford it. Since research is still
going on results are yet not 100% successful.
Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 33
 BIONIC EYE
How a Bionic Eye Works
• A bionic eye typically consists of both external and internal components that work together to convert visual
information into electrical signals, which are then transmitted to the brain to create visual perceptions.
• External Components:
• Camera: Mounted on a pair of glasses, the camera captures visual information from the environment.
• Processor: The camera sends the captured images to a portable processor (often worn on the body),
which converts the images into electrical signals.
• Transmitter: These electrical signals are transmitted wirelessly to the implanted device inside the
eye.
• Internal Components:
• Implant: The implant is typically placed on or in the retina. It contains an array of electrodes that
receive the electrical signals from the external transmitter.
Click to Edit • Electrodes: The electrodes stimulate the remaining functional cells in the retina, bypassing the
damaged photoreceptors. These stimulated cells send visual information to the brain via the optic
nerve.
• The bionic eye comprises an external camera and transmitter and an internal microchip. The camera is
mounted on a pair of eyeglasses, where it serves to organize the visual stimuli of the environment before
emitting high-frequency radio waves.
• The stimulator microchip consists of an electrode array that is surgically implanted into the retina. That
functions as an electrical relay in place of degenerated retinal cells.
• The radio waves that are emitted by the external camera and transmitter are received by the stimulator,
which then fires electricalKrithika
impulses. TheDept
impulses are relayed
of Biotechnology, AIT by the few remaining retinal cells and34are
transduced as normal to the optic nerve pathway, resulting in vision.
 HEART AS A PUMP SYSTEM

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Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 35

 THE HUMAN HEART
• The human heart is a four-chambered muscular organ, shaped
and sized roughly like a man's closed fist with two-thirds of the
mass to the left of midline.
• Structure of the Heart:
• The heart serves as a vital pump in the circulatory system,
propelling blood throughout the body. Let’s dive into its
fascinating structure and function:
• The heart consists of several layers:
• Myocardium: A tough muscular wall that contracts to pump blood.
• Pericardium: A thin outer layer covering the heart.
• Endocardium: A lining on the inside of the heart.

• The heart is a muscular organ divided into four chambers: two

atria (upper chambers) and two ventricles (lower chambers).
These chambers are separated by valves that ensure blood
Click to Edit flows in one direction:
• Right Atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood from the body
through the superior and inferior vena cava.
• Right Ventricle: Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via
the pulmonary artery.
• Left Atrium: Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through
the pulmonary veins.
• Left Ventricle: Pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body
through the aorta. Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 36
 Functioning of the Heart as a Pump
• Filling Phase (Diastole):
• Blood flows into the atria from the body and lungs.
• The atrioventricular (AV) valves (tricuspid and mitral valves) are open, allowing blood to pass into
the ventricles.
• Contraction Phase (Systole):
• Atria contract (atrial systole) to push additional blood into the ventricles.
• Ventricles contract (ventricular systole), causing the AV valves to close and the semilunar valves
(pulmonary and aortic valves) to open.
• Blood is ejected from the right ventricle to the lungs and from the left ventricle to the rest of the body.
• The human heart is very strong and is capable of pumping blood up to 30 feet distance. An
average heart beats maximum of 70-80 beats per minute and is considered healthy. The
efficiency of the heart can be maintained and improved by performing physical activity. The
Click to Edit heart is called a double pump because each side pumps blood to a different circulation.
Deoxygenated blood from the body drains to the right side of the heart. This is the first
pump that sends blood to the lungs, called the pulmonary circulation, where it becomes
oxygenated and releases carbon dioxide.
• The Cardiac Cycle:
• Systole: The contraction phase where blood is ejected from the ventricles.
• Diastole: The relaxation phase where the heart chambers fill with blood.
• Heart Sounds: The “lub-dub” sounds correspond to the closing of the AV valves (lub) and
semilunar valves (dub)
Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 37
 ELECTRICAL SIGNALING IN THE HEART
• Your heart rhythm is determined by electrical impulses that travel through its various chambers. These impulses cause the heart
muscle to contract and pump blood. Conduction refers to how these electrical signals move through the heart.
• When there’s an issue with conduction, it can lead to irregular heartbeats (arrhythmias).
ECG Monitoring
• An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a quick test that records the heart’s electrical signals.
• It helps diagnose heart attacks and arrhythmias.
• If you suspect abnormal heart rhythms, an ECG is essential for diagnosis.
• Sometimes, 24-hour portable ECG monitoring may be needed to capture irregularities
• Basics of ECG Monitoring:
• Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG): A test that records the electrical activity of the heart over a period of time using electrodes
placed on the skin.
• Purpose: Used to detect heart abnormalities, monitor heart health, and diagnose conditions such as arrhythmias, myocardial
infarction (heart attack), and other heart diseases.
• 2. Components of an ECG:
• P wave: Represents atrial depolarization.
• QRS complex: Represents ventricular depolarization.
• T wave: Represents ventricular repolarization.
• Intervals and Segments: PR interval, ST segment, QT interval, etc., provide additional diagnostic information.
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Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 38

 Reasons for blockages of blood vessels:
Blockages in blood vessels can result from various factors, leading to reduced or obstructed blood flow and potentially
causing serious health issues. Here are some common reasons for blood vessel blockages:
1. Atherosclerosis:
• Description: The buildup of fatty deposits (plaques) on the inner walls of arteries.
• Causes: High cholesterol, high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, obesity, and a sedentary lifestyle.
• Impact: Can lead to coronary artery disease, carotid artery disease, and peripheral artery disease.
2. Blood Clots (Thrombosis):
• Description: Formation of clots within blood vessels.
• Types:
• Arterial Thrombosis: Clots form in arteries, often due to atherosclerosis.
• Venous Thrombosis: Clots form in veins, such as deep vein thrombosis (DVT).
• Causes: Immobility, certain medications, genetic clotting disorders, and medical conditions like cancer.
3. Inflammation of Blood Vessels (Vasculitis):
• Description: Inflammation that can cause vessel narrowing or blockage.
• Causes: Autoimmune diseases, infections, and certain medications.
Click to Edit • Impact: Can affect arteries, veins, and capillaries, leading to reduced blood flow and organ damage.

Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 39

 Reasons for blockages of blood
vessels:
4. High cholesterol levels: Excessive amounts of low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol in the blood can lead to the formation of plaque in the blood vessels,
which can narrow or block them.
5. High blood pressure: Over time, high blood pressure can cause damage to the
blood vessels, leading to the formation of plaque and blockages.
6. Smoking: Smoking can damage the inner walls of blood vessels and promote
the buildup of plaque, leading to blockages.
7. Diabetes: People with uncontrolled diabetes are at a higher risk of developing
Click to Edit blockages in their blood vessels, due to damage to the blood vessels from high
levels of glucose.
8. Age: As people age, the blood vessels can become stiff and less flexible,
increasing the risk of blockages.
9. Genetics: Some people may be predisposed to developing blockages in their
blood vessels due to genetic factors.
10. Poor diet: A diet high in saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol can
Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 40
increase the risk of developing blockages in the blood vessels.
 DESIGN OF STENTS
A stent is a tiny wire mesh tube that keeps an artery propped
open to increase blood flow to the heart and relieve chest pain.
When plaque builds up in a coronary artery (which feeds the
heart muscle), it can narrow the artery, potentially reducing
blood flow and causing symptoms like chest pain. Here are
some key points about stents:
• Types of Stents:
• Bare Metal Stents: These are simple metal mesh
tubes.
• Drug-Eluting Stents: Coated with medicine that
releases into the artery over time, preventing
narrowing.
• Biodegradable Stents: Temporary stents that dissolve
Click to Edit after a few months
• Design Features:
• Structure: Mesh-like tubular design that can expand to fit
the diameter of the artery.
• Material: Biocompatible metals or polymers to minimize
immune response.
• Drug Coating (for DES): Antiproliferative drugs like
sirolimus or paclitaxel to prevent tissue growth that can
block the artery. Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 41
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Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 42

 PACEMAKERS
• Purpose: Pacemakers regulate the heart rate in patients with arrhythmias, ensuring the heart beats
at a normal rhythm.
• Components:
• Pulse Generator: Contains the battery and electronic circuitry.
• Leads: Wires that deliver electrical impulses to the heart muscle.
• Electrodes: Located at the end of the leads, they make contact with the heart tissue.
• Design Features:
• Battery Life: Typically lasts 5-15 years, depending on usage and device type.
• Programmable Settings: Allows customization of pacing modes and rates based on patient needs.
Click to Edit • Size: Compact and lightweight for implantation under the skin.
• Types:
• Single-Chamber Pacemaker: One lead placed in the right atrium or right ventricle.
• Dual-Chamber Pacemaker: Two leads, one in the right atrium and one in the right ventricle.
• Biventricular Pacemaker: Three leads to coordinate contractions of both ventricles (used in cardiac
resynchronization therapy).

Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 43

Click to Edit

Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 44

 DEFIBRILLATOR
• A defibrillator is a life-saving device used during cardiac emergencies. It provides an
electric shock to the heart, allowing it to return to a normal rhythm when potentially
fatal arrhythmias occur in the ventricles (lower chambers). There are different types of
defibrillators:

• Automated External Defibrillator (AED): These portable devices are commonly found in
public places. They analyze the heart’s rhythm and deliver a shock if needed. AEDs
provide verbal instructions for use.

• Wearable Cardioverter Defibrillator: Worn like a vest under clothing, this type
Click to Edit continuously monitors the heart and can deliver a shock if an abnormal rhythm is
detected.

• Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator (ICD): Surgically implanted, an ICD monitors heart

rhythms and delivers precise shocks when necessary. Unlike pacemakers, ICDs can
provide defibrillation.
• Remember, while CPR provides temporary assistance, a defibrillator significantly
improves survival chances
Krithika duringDept
sudden cardiac
of Biotechnology, AIT arrest. If someone already has a 45
pacemaker or ICD, a defibrillator can still be used.
Click to Edit

Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 46

 LUNGS AS A PURIFICATION
SYSTEM

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Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 47

 LUNGS AS A PURIFICATION
SYSTEM
• The lung purifies air by removing harmful substances and adding oxygen to
the bloodstream. The process of purifying air in the lungs can be described as
follows:
• • Filtration: The nose and mouth serve as a first line of defense against
harmful substances in the air, such as dust, dirt, and bacteria. The tiny hairs in
the nose, called cilia, and the mucus produced by the respiratory system trap
these substances and prevent them from entering the lungs.
• • Moisturization: The air is also humidified as it passes over the moist lining
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of the respiratory tract, which helps to keep the airways moist and prevent
them from drying out.
• • Gas Exchange: Once the air reaches the alveoli, the gas exchange process
occurs, where oxygen diffuses across the thin alveolar and capillary walls into
the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction, from
the bloodstream into the alveoli to be exhaled. This process ensures that the
bloodstream is supplied with fresh, oxygen-rich air, while waste carbon
dioxide is removed
Krithika from the
Deptbody.
of Biotechnology, AIT 48
 THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE LUNG
• The architecture of the lung is designed to maximize surface area for efficient gas exchange. The lung is
divided into several parts, including the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
• • Trachea: The trachea is the main airway that leads from the larynx (voice box) to the lungs. It is lined
with cilia and mucus-secreting glands that help to filter out harmful substances and trap them in the
mucus.
• • Bronchi: The trachea branches into two main bronchi, one for each lung. The bronchi are larger
airways that continue to branch into smaller airways called bronchioles.
• • Bronchioles: The bronchioles are smaller airways that eventually lead to the alveoli. They are
surrounded by tiny air sacs called alveoli, which are the sites of gas exchange.
• Alveoli: The alveoli are tiny air sacs that are lined with a network of capillaries. This close proximity of
the alveoli and capillaries allows for efficient diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air in
the alveoli and the bloodstream.

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Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 49

 THE GAS EXCHANGE MECHANISM
• The gas exchange mechanism in the lung involves the transfer of oxygen from the air in the alveoli to the
bloodstream, and the transfer of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to the air in the alveoli. This
process is known as diffusion and occurs due to differences in partial pressures of oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
• • Oxygen Diffusion: The partial pressure of oxygen in the air in the alveoli is higher than the partial
pressure of oxygen in the bloodstream. This difference creates a gradient that causes oxygen to diffuse
from the alveoli into the bloodstream, where it binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells to form
oxyhemoglobin.
• • Carbon Dioxide Diffusion: The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream is higher than the
partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air in the alveoli. This difference creates a gradient that causes
carbon dioxide to diffuse from the bloodstream into the alveoli, where it is exhaled.

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Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 50

 SPIROMETRY
• Spirometry is a diagnostic test that measures the
function of the lungs by measuring the amount and
flow rate of air that can be exhaled.
• The test is commonly used to diagnose lung conditions
such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD), and interstitial lung disease.
• Principle:
• The principle behind spirometry is to measure the volume
of air that can be exhaled from the lungs in a given time
period.
• By measuring the volume of air exhaled, spirometry can
provide information about the functioning of the lungs
Click to Edit and the ability of the lungs to move air in and out.
• Working:
• Spirometry is performed using a spirometer, a device that
consists of a mouthpiece, a flow sensor, and a volume
sensor.
• The patient is asked to exhale as much air as possible into
the spirometer, and the spirometer measures the volume
and flow rate of the exhaled air.
• The volume of air exhaled is displayed on a graph called a
flow-volume loop, which provides information about the
lung function. Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 51
 ABNORMAL LUNG PHYSIOLOGY
• Abnormal lung physiology refers to any deviation from the normal
functioning of the respiratory system. This can be caused by a
variety of factors, including diseases, injuries, or genetic
conditions. Some common examples of abnormal lung physiology
include:
• Asthma: A chronic inflammatory disease that causes the airways
to narrow, making it difficult to breathe.
• • Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): A progressive
lung disease that makes it hard to breathe and can include
conditions such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
• • Pulmonary fibrosis: A disease in which scar tissue builds up in
the lungs, making it difficult to breathe and reducing lung function.
Click to Edit • • Pneumonia: An infection in the lungs that can cause
inflammation and fluid buildup in the air sacs.
• • Pulmonary embolism: A blockage in one of the pulmonary
arteries, usually by a blood clot, which can cause lung damage and
reduce oxygen flow to the body.
• • Lung cancer: A type of cancer that originates in the lung and can
impair lung function by interfering with normal air flow and
oxygen exchange.
• Treatment for abnormal lung physiology depends on the
underlying cause and may include medications,
Krithika lifestyle AIT
Dept of Biotechnology, changes, 52
or surgery.
 CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE
PULMONARY DISEASE (COPD)
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a group of
progressive lung diseases that cause breathing difficulties. It's
characterized by persistent airflow limitation that is not fully
reversible.
• The two main forms of COPD are chronic bronchitis and
emphysema.
• In COPD, the airways and small air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs
become damaged or blocked, leading to difficulty in exhaling air.
This results in a decrease in lung function, leading to shortness of
breath, wheezing, and coughing.
• Over time, these symptoms can get worse and limit a person's
ability to perform everyday activities.
Click to Edit • The primary cause of COPD is long-term exposure to irritants
such as tobacco smoke, air pollution, and dust. Other risk factors
include a history of frequent lung infections, a family history of
lung disease, and exposure to second-hand smoke.
• There is no cure for COPD, but treatment can help manage the
symptoms and slow the progression of the disease.
• Treatment options include medication, such as bronchodilators
and steroids, oxygen therapy, and lung rehabilitation. In severe
cases, surgery may also be an option. In addition, quitting
smoking and avoiding exposure to irritants is crucial in managing
COPD.
Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 53
 VENTILATORS
• Ventilators are medical devices used to assist or control breathing in individuals who are unable to breathe
adequately on their own.
• They are commonly used in the treatment of acute respiratory failure, which can occur as a result of a
variety of conditions such as pneumonia, severe asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD).
• There are several different types of ventilators, including volume-controlled ventilators, pressure-
controlled ventilators, and bilevel positive airway pressure (BiPAP) devices.
• The type of ventilator used depends on the patient's individual needs and the type of respiratory failure
being treated.
• Ventilators work by delivering pressurized air or oxygen into the lungs through a breathing tube or mask.
The pressure can be adjusted to match the patient's needs and to help maintain adequate oxygen levels in
the blood.

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Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 54

 HEART-LUNG MACHINE
• A heart-lung machine, also known as a
cardiopulmonary bypass machine, is a device
used in cardiovascular surgery to temporarily
take over the functions of the heart and lungs.
• The heart-lung machine is used during open-
heart surgery, such as coronary artery bypass
graft (CABG) surgery and valve replacement
surgery, to support the patient's circulatory and
respiratory functions while the heart is stopped.
• The heart-lung machine works by circulating
Click to Edit blood outside of the body through a series of
tubes and pumps. Blood is taken from the body,
oxygenated, and then returned to the body.
• This allows the heart to be stopped during the
surgery without causing any harm to the patient.
• The use of a heart-lung machine during surgery
carries some risks, including the potential for
blood clots, bleeding,
Krithika
and infections.
Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 55
 KIDNEY AS A FILTRATION SYSTEM

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Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 56

 KIDNEY AS A FILTRATION SYSTEM
• The kidney is a complex organ that acts as a filtration system for
the body. It removes waste and excess fluid from the
bloodstream and maintains a delicate balance of electrolytes,
hormones, and other substances that are critical for the body's
normal functioning.
• The kidney also plays an important role in regulating blood
pressure by secreting the hormone renin, which helps control
the balance of fluid and electrolytes in the body. It also
Click to Edit regulates red blood cell production and the levels of various
minerals in the blood, such as calcium and phosphorus.
• The kidney is composed of functional units called nephrons,
which are the basic structural and functional units of the
kidney. Each kidney contains approximately one million
nephrons, and each nephron performs the functions of
filtration, reabsorption,
Krithika
and secretion.
Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 57
 ARCHITECTURE OF KIDNEY
• The nephron is comprised of several key structures:
• • Bowman's capsule: This is a cup-shaped structure that surrounds the
glomerulus and filters waste and excess fluid from the bloodstream
into the renal tubule.
• • Glomerulus: A network of tiny blood vessels within the Bowman's
capsule that filters waste and excess fluid from the bloodstream.
• • Proximal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that
reabsorbs important substances, such as glucose, amino acids, and
electrolytes, back into the bloodstream.
• • Loop of Henle: A U-shaped segment of the renal tubule that is critical
for the reabsorption of ions and water.
• Distal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that regulates
the levels of electrolytes and other important substances in the
Click to Edit bloodstream.
• • Collecting duct: A series of ducts that collect the filtrate from the
renal tubules and transport it to the renal pelvis, where it drains into
the ureter and eventually into the bladder.
• The nephrons are surrounded by a network of blood vessels, including
the afferent arteriole and the efferent arteriole, which bring blood into
and out of the glomerulus, respectively. The filtrate produced by the
nephron passes through the renal tubules, where it is modified by
reabsorption and secretion, before being eliminated from the body as
urine. Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 58
 MECHANISM OF FILTRATION – URINE
FORMATION
Blood enters the kidney through the renal arteries and flows into tiny filtering units called glomeruli.

• At the glomerulus, the pressure in the blood vessels causes a portion of the plasma and dissolved
substances to filter out and enter a structure called Bowman's capsule.

• In Bowman's capsule, the filtrate is then transferred into the renal tubules, which are the main
filtering units of the kidneys.

Click to Edit • In the renal tubules, the filtrate passes through a series of specialized cells, such as proximal
tubular cells and distal tubular cells, which reabsorb important substances such as glucose, amino
acids, and electrolytes back into the bloodstream.

• At the same time, the renal tubules secrete waste products, such as urea and creatinine, back into
the filtrate.

• Finally, the filtered fluid, now known as urine, is transported through the renal pelvis and ureters to
the bladder, where
Krithika
it is eventually eliminated from the body.
Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 59
 CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE(CKD)
• CKD stands for Chronic Kidney Disease. It is a long-term condition in which the kidneys gradually
become less able to function properly. It can be caused by a variety of factors, including diabetes, high
blood pressure, and other health problems that damage the kidneys.
• Symptoms:
• Symptoms of CKD include fatigue, swelling in the legs and feet, trouble sleeping, and difficulty
concentrating. As the disease progresses, it can lead to more serious complications, such as anemia,
nerve damage, and an increased risk of heart disease and stroke.
• Treatment for CKD may include lifestyle changes, such as eating a healthy diet and exercising
regularly, as well as medications to manage symptoms and underlying health conditions. In severe
cases, kidney transplant or dialysis may be necessary.

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Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 60

 Dialysis Systems
• Dialysis is a medical treatment that helps to filter waste and excess fluids from the
blood when the kidneys are unable to function properly.
• There are two main types of dialysis systems: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.
• Hemodialysis is a procedure that uses a machine to clean the blood. During
hemodialysis, blood is removed from the body, passed through a dialysis machine
that filters out waste and excess fluids, and then returned to the body.
• Hemodialysis typically takes place in a hospital or dialysis center, and is typically
performed three times a week for three to four hours at a time.

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Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 61

 PERITONEAL DIALYSIS
• Peritoneal dialysis is a type of dialysis that uses the lining of the abdomen, called the
peritoneum, to filter waste and excess fluids from the blood. A sterile solution is
introduced into the abdomen, where it absorbs waste and excess fluids, and is then
drained and replaced with fresh solution. Peritoneal dialysis can be performed at home
and allows for more flexibility in scheduling.
• Both hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis can effectively treat the symptoms of kidney
failure, but each has its own advantages and disadvantages. The choice of dialysis system
depends on various factors such as the individual's overall health, lifestyle, and personal
preferences.

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Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 62

Click to Edit

Krithika Dept of Biotechnology, AIT 63