Sociology of Crime
and Delinquency
Folajumi Sefiu
What Are Theories?
Theories are systematic explanations that help us
understand complex phenomena by identifying relationships
among concepts, patterns, and causes.
They serve as frameworks for organizing observations,
guiding research, and predicting future outcomes.
In the social sciences, theories help us comprehend human
behavior and societal structures by offering models
grounded in empirical evidence.
What Are Theories of Crime?
Theories of crime are explanations for why individuals commit
crimes, why certain behaviors are labeled as criminal, and how
societal factors contribute to criminality.
These theories explore the causes, dynamics, and
consequences of crime, providing insights into prevention and
control.
Multidisciplinary in nature, they integrate perspectives from
sociology, psychology, biology, economics, and more, reflecting
the complexity of human behavior.
Sociological Theories of Crime
Sociological theories examine how social structures and
processes influence crime.
The next slides contain key sociological theories, their
proponents, and their origins:
Structural Strain Theory
• Proponent: Robert K. Merton
• Origin: United States, 1938
• Overview
Robert Merton’s Strain Theory explains crime as a result of the
pressure individuals feel when there is a gap between socially
approved goals and the institutionalized legitimate means
available to achieve them.
Merton argued that society promotes cultural goals like wealth and
success but doesn’t provide equal access to the legitimate means
(like education and employment) needed to achieve those goals.
This disconnection creates “strain,” leading some people to deviate
from societal norms to achieve success.
Strain Theory Cont’d
Merton proposed five ways individuals adapt to this strain:
1. Conformity
Most people accept societal goals and use legitimate means to achieve them, even when
success is difficult. For example, they work hard, go to school, or take on multiple jobs to
pursue wealth or success.
2. Innovation
Individuals accept societal goals but use illegal or unconventional means to achieve them.
For instance, a person might resort to theft or fraud when legitimate opportunities are
unavailable. According to Merton, this is the most common mode of adaption.
3. Ritualism
Some abandon societal goals but rigidly adhere to legitimate means. An example is a worker
who continues to follow rules and routines without striving for success.
4. Retreatism
People reject both societal goals and means, withdrawing from society. Examples include
drug addicts or the homeless who disengage from mainstream life.
5. Rebellion
This involves rejecting existing societal goals and means and replacing them with new ones.
Revolutionaries or activists advocating for systemic change are examples.
Social Disorganization Theory
• Proponents: Clifford Shaw and Henry D. McKay
• Origin: Chicago, 1942
• Overview:
This theory focuses on urban environments, particularly how poverty, residential
instability, and ethnic diversity lead to weakened social institutions, resulting in
higher crime rates.
According to Shaw and McKay, neighborhoods with high turnover rates and
economic deprivation lack the community cohesion necessary to enforce norms
and discourage deviance.
They observed that crime rates remained high in certain neighborhoods despite
changes in their populations, indicating that environmental factors played a
significant role in fostering criminal activity.
Differential Association Theory
• Proponent: Edwin H. Sutherland
• Origin: United States, 1939
• Overview:
Sutherland argued that criminal behavior is learned through interaction with
others. Individuals become criminals by associating with others who condone
criminal activities, adopting their values, and justifying unlawful behavior.
The theory outlines nine propositions explaining how individuals learn
techniques and motivations for crime.
Key among these is the idea that exposure to an excess of definitions
favorable to law violation over definitions unfavorable to it increases the
likelihood of criminal behaviour
Labeling Theory
• Proponents: Howard Becker and Edwin Lemert
• Origin: United States, 1960s
• Overview:
Labeling theory suggests that deviance is not inherent in an act but is a
result of societal labeling.
Once labeled as a "criminal," individuals may internalize this identity,
perpetuating further deviance.
Lemert distinguished between primary deviance (initial acts of rule-
breaking) and secondary deviance (deviance that results from societal
reactions).
Becker expanded on this by highlighting how social groups create
deviance by establishing rules and applying them to particular
individuals, thereby stigmatizing them.
Conflict Theory
• Proponent: Karl Marx (influence) and Richard Quinney
• Origin: Europe (Marx), United States (Quinney), 19th-20th centuries
• Overview:
Rooted in Marxist thought, conflict theory views crime as a product of
social inequality and power struggles.
The ruling class defines laws to maintain their dominance, criminalizing
behaviors of the marginalized while protecting their own interests.
Quinney argued that laws are tools used by the elite to oppress the
working class, ensuring their economic and political power remains
unchallenged.
This theory emphasizes the need to address systemic inequality to
reduce crime.
Routine Activities Theory
• Proponents: Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson
• Origin: United States, 1979
• Overview:
This theory posits that crime occurs when three factors converge: a
motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of capable
guardians. For example, theft is more likely to occur when valuables are left
unattended.
The theory highlights the importance of situational factors and routine
activities in understanding crime, suggesting that changes in societal
patterns, such as increased female workforce participation, can influence
crime rates by altering opportunities for criminal activity.
Subcultural Theories (Refer to Module 4)
• Proponent: Albert Cohen
• Origin: United States, 1955
• Overview:
Subcultural theories suggest that certain groups develop norms and
values that deviate from mainstream society. For example, gangs may
adopt values that promote violence and crime as a means of achieving
status within their group.
Cohen’s work focused on delinquent subcultures, particularly among
working-class boys who experience status frustration when they fail to
achieve success through legitimate means.
These frustrations lead them to create alternative value systems that
prioritize deviance.
Social Control Theory
• Proponent: Travis Hirschi
• Origin: United States, 1969
• Overview:
Social control theory argues that strong social bonds to family, school,
and community discourage individuals from engaging in criminal
behavior.
When these bonds weaken, the likelihood of deviance increases.
Hirschi identified four key elements of social bonds: attachment,
commitment, involvement, and belief.
The theory emphasizes the role of socialization and institutions in
maintaining order, suggesting that fostering strong ties can prevent
criminal activity.
Broken Windows Theory
• Proponents: James Q. Wilson and George Kelling
• Origin: United States, 1982
• Overview:
• This theory asserts that maintaining urban environments to prevent small
signs of disorder (e.g., broken windows) can reduce serious crime.
• It suggests that visible neglect fosters an atmosphere where criminal
activity is more likely.
• The theory stressed that addressing minor offenses and maintaining
order, enables communities to create environments that discourage more
significant criminal acts. This demonstrates the importance of proactive
policing and community engagement.
Frustration-Aggression Theory
• Proponents: John Dollard and Neal E. Miller
• Origin: United States, 1939
• Overview:
This theory posits that aggression arises when individuals experience
frustration due to blocked goals or unmet needs.
In a criminological context, frustration from economic hardship, social
inequalities, or perceived injustices can lead individuals to engage in
violent or criminal acts.
The theory explains crimes such as riots or workplace violence as
expressions of displaced aggression, where frustration with broader
societal structures is directed towards vulnerable or symbolic target
Relative Deprivation Theory
• Proponents: Ted Robert Gurr and others
• Origin: United States, 1970
• Overview:
Relative deprivation refers to the perception of inequality between one’s
expectations and their actual conditions.
Gurr suggested that this perceived disparity fosters resentment and,
ultimately, deviant behavior or crime. For instance, individuals living in
affluent societies but experiencing poverty are more likely to feel deprived,
fueling criminal behavior as a means of achieving societal standards.
This theory is widely applied to understand social unrest, protests, and crimes
arising in contexts of economic disparity
Cake Theory
The Cake Theory of Crime is a metaphor used to explain how different types of crimes
are perceived and dealt with within the criminal justice system. It divides crimes into
layers, similar to the layers of a cake, to highlight how society and the legal system
prioritize and respond to various offenses. The concept simplifies the complexities of crime
for easy understanding.
The Layers of the Cake:
1. Top Layer: High-Profile Crimes
This layer represents the rare, serious crimes that attract significant media attention and
public interest, such as murders involving celebrities, political scandals, or large-scale fraud.
These cases often receive the most resources, scrutiny, and time in the justice system due to
their severity and visibility. They shape public perception of crime and justice but are
relatively uncommon.
2. Middle Layers: Serious and Routine Felonies
This includes crimes like armed robbery, burglary, and assault. These are more frequent than
high-profile cases but still serious. The justice system prioritizes these offenses, but they
don’t receive the same level of public or media attention as the top layer. Prosecutors and
judges aim to resolve these cases efficiently through plea bargains or trials.
3. Bottom Layer: Misdemeanors and Petty Crimes