CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS
FOR
YEAR-II
GROUP-II
March, 2015
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
1.1. Definition
Construction Materials: are any material used in
construction industry.
Examples: cement ,soil, aggregates,asphalt,etc
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
2.1 Classification of Materials
Materials that are used for construction
purpose can be broadly classified based on
their:
Physical nature
Metallic Property
Mode of production
[Link] &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
CLASSIFICATION & PROPERTIES OF
Classification Based on Physical Nature of
MATERIALS
Materials
1. Gases : Air, oxygen, CO2
2. Liquids : Water, chemical admixtures
3. Semi-solids : Fresh pastes, mortars, asphalt
4. Solids : Metals, hardened concrete
Classification Based on Metallic Property
[Link] : in general metals can be classified
in to :Ferrous and Non-ferrous.
a. Ferrous: is the metal in which the principal
element is iron. Examples : steel, wrought iron &
cast iron
b. Non-ferrous : is the metal in which the principal
element is not iron
Examples: copper, aluminum, lead, zinc, etc
[Link] metallic:
Examples; concrete, timber, stone, lime etc.
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Classification Based on Mode of Production
a) Naturally Occurring Materials
stone , timber
b) Industrially produced materials
Cement , glass
C) Materials produced at construction site
Concrete , mortar
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
General Properties of Civil Engineering
Materials
Physical
Mechanical
Chemical
Other -Thermal, Acoustical, Optical, Electrical
Most CE Applications focus on physical &
mechanical properties
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
CLASSIFICATION & PROPERTIES OF
Physical Properties
MATERIALS
density
specific gravity
porosity
permeability
surface energy
texture (micro, macro)
other (color, thermal expansion, shape)
Mechanical Properties
Resistance to applied loads (stress) initially & over time
stiffness
strength
fracture / yielding
(brittle / ductile)
tension
compression
flexure (bending)
torsion
direct shear
multiaxial
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Chemical Properties
Chemical composition, potential reaction with
environment
oxide content
carbonate content
acidity, alkalinity
resistance to corrosion
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Behavior of materials under load
Application of external force on solid body in
equilibrium results in:
Internal resisting forces which are developed in
the body so as to balance the externally
applied force.
The body is deformed to varying degree
The intensity of internal force is stress and
the deformation per unit is strain.
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Depending on the arrangement & direction of
the external forces, the stress produced in the
body may be :
Tensile
Compressive
Shear
Bending
Torsional
Various combinations of the above.
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Determining the Properties of Civil Engineering
Materials
Properties of materials are determined by
• Laboratory testing
• Field testing
To avoid inconsistencies in test results
standards are devised which describe the test
apparatus and the procedure.
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Testing of Materials for Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties are conducted to examine the
performance of construction materials under the action of
external forces.
Mechanical tests are classified :
A. With reference to the arrangement & direction of the
external forces;
Tension Test
Specimen under tension test is subjected to an axial tensile
force
Tensile stress is developed on cross-sectional area
perpendicular to the line of action of the force.
The specimen increase in length.
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Compression Test
Specimen is subjected to an axial compressive force
Compressive stress is produced.
The specimen decrease in length.
Shear test
In this test, shearing stress is determined on the x- sectional
area parallel to the line of action of the external forces.
Bending Test.
Specimen is subjected to forces that give rise to bending
moments
The resulting stresses are compressive on one side of the
neutral axis & tensile on the other side.
Shear stress exist throughout the beam.
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
TENSION & COMPRESSION TEST
Strength of a material can only be determined
by experiment
One test used by engineers is the tension or
compression test
This test is used primarily to determine the
relationship between the average normal
stress and average normal strain in common
engineering materials.
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
A stress-strain diagram is obtained by plotting the various values
of the stress and corresponding strain in the specimen.
Using recorded data, we can determine nominal or engineering
stress by:
σ=P /A0
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Likewise, nominal or engineering strain is
found directly from strain gauge reading, or by:
εo =δ/ L0
By plotting σ (ordinate) against ε(abscissa),
we get a conventional stress-strain diagram.
The following figure shows the characteristic
stress-strain diagram for steel, a commonly
used material for structural members and
mechanical elements
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Proportional Limit: is the greatest stress which a
material is capable of withstanding without
deviation from the law of proportionality of
stress to strain.
Elastic Limit: is the greatest stress which a
material is capable of withstanding without a
permanent deformation remaining up on the
release of stress.
Yield Point :is the stress at which there occurs a
considerable increase in strain without an
increase in stress. Only ductile materials have
both lower & upper yield points.
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Elastic behavior.
A straight line
Stress is proportional to strain, i.e., linearly
elastic
Upper stress limit, or ; σpl proportional limit
If load is removed upon reaching elastic limit,
specimen will return to its original shape
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
CLASSIFICATION & PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Yielding.
Material deforms permanently; yielding;
plastic deformation
Yield stress, σY
Once yield point reached, specimen continues to elongate
(strain) without any increase in load
Strain hardening
Ultimate stress,σu
While specimen is elongating, its x-sectional
area will decrease
Decrease in area is fairly uniform over entire
gauge length.
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Brittle Materials
Material that exhibit little or no yielding before
failure are referred to as brittle materials, e.g.,
gray cast iron
Brittle materials do not have a well-defined
tensile fracture stress, since appearance of
initial cracks in a specimen is quite random
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
HOOKE’S LAW
Most engineering materials exhibit a linear
relationship between stress and strain with the
elastic region.
Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676 using
springs, known as Hooke’s law
σ= Eε
E represents the constant of proportionality, also
called the modulus of elasticity or Young’s
modulus
E has units of stress, i.e., pascals, MPa or GPa.
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Modulus of Elasticity(young’s modulus)
is the slope of the initial linear part of stress-
strain diagram.
The greater the modulus of elasticity, the
smaller the elastic strain resulting from the
application of a given values.
Methods of determining modulus of elasticity,
E.
i. For ductile materials, with linear stress – strain
portion,
E= Δ σ ⁄ Δ ε
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
ii. For materials with non-linear stress-
strain curves
The slope of the stress- strain curve varies and
the modulus of elasticity cannot be readily
determined.
The following three methods are employed to
define E:
a. Initial-Tangent modulus: The slope of the stress
–strain curve at the origin which has a value of
E 1 =tanф1
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
b. Secant modulus : the slope of the line joining
the origin and the selected point on the stress-
strain curve with the value of
E 2 =tanф2
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
CLASSIFICATION & PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS
Modulus of resilience
When stress reaches proportional limit, strain- energy-energy
density is called modulus of resilience.
A material’s resilience represents its ability to absorb energy
without any permanent damage
CLASSIFICATION & PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Modulus of toughness
Modulus of toughness t, indicates the strain-energy density of
material before it fractures.
Shaded area under stress-strain diagram is the modulus of
toughness
CLASSIFICATION & PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS
Stiffness
is the measure of the ability of material to resist
deformation.
The higher the modulus of elasticity, the stiffer the
material.
A material has a higher stiffness value when its
deformation in the elastic range is relatively small.
Comparing steel alloys with E=210Gpa and aluminium
alloys with E=70Gpa,the steel alloys are about three times
as stiff as the aluminium alloys i.e steel alloys will deform
about one-third as much as aluminium alloys for the same
stress.
CLASSIFICATION & PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
POISSON’S RATIO
When body subjected to axial tensile force, it elongates and
contracts laterally
Similarly, it will contract and its sides expand laterally when
subjected to an axial compressive force
Strains of the bar are:
ε long=δ/L , εlat=δ’/r
the ratio of the two strains is a constant value, since both are
proportional.
Poisson’s ratio, ν= − εlat /ε long
Is the ratio of the unit deformations or strains in transverse
direction to the longitudinal direction within proportional limit.
Poisson’s ratio is a measure of the stiffness of the material in the
direction at right angle to applied load.
B. Mechanical Test with reference to the rate & duration of the load
application.
Static Tests
Made with gradually increasing load.
e.g. ordinary tests in tension & compression etc.
Dynamic Tests
Made with suddenly applied loads.
Wear Tests
Made to determine the resistance to abrasion & impact.
Long time Tests
These are made with the loads applied to the object for long period of
time.
Fatigue Tests
These tests are made with fluctuating stresses repeated a large number
of times
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
C. Mechanical Tests With Reference to the effect on the
specimen
Destructive Test
The specimens are either crushed or ruptured and made
useless at the end of the tests.
Tests conducted on the following materials are best
examples
Ultimate strength of steel
Compressive strength of concrete
Non-destructive Tests
Are used to test the strength of members of existing
structures without affecting their performance.
Example: hammer test
CLASSIFICATION &
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
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