MATTER AND MATERIALS

NATURAL SCIENCES
TERM TWO
CATCH-UP

GRADE 9
LEARNER BOOK
 GRADE 9
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic Page number

1. The periodic table 3

2. Names of compounds 6
3. Chemical reactions 9
4. Reactions of metals with 14
oxygen
5. Reactions of non-metals with 20
oxygen
6. Acids & bases, and ph value 23
7. Reactions of acids with bases 25
8. Reactions of acids with metals 34
9. Glossary 35
9. Acknowledgements 38
1. The Periodic Table
Let us start by revising what you learnt in grade 7 about the periodic table.
1. All the elements that are known, can be arranged on a table called the Periodic Table.
2. The discoveries of many scientists over many years contributed to the information in the Periodic Table, but the version of the
table that we use today was originally proposed by Dmitri Mendeleev in the 1800s.
3. Each element has a fixed position on the Periodic Table. The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, with the
lightest element (hydrogen: H) in the top left hand corner.
4. An element's position on the Periodic Table tells us whether it is a metal, a non-metal or a semi-metal.
a) metals are found on the left hand side of the table;
b) non-metals are found on the far right hand side of the table; and
c) semi-metals are found in the region between the metals and non-metals.
5. An element can be identified in 3 different ways:
a) each element has a unique name;
b) each element has a unique chemical symbol; and
c) each element has a unique atomic number.
Metals are usually shiny, ductile, and malleable. Most are solids at room temperature and have high melting and boiling points.
Non-metals can be solids, liquids or gases at room temperature. They have a great variety of properties that usually depend on
the state they are in.
The semi-metals are all solids at room temperature. They usually have a combination of metallic and non-metallic properties.
The Periodic Table is basically a chart that scientists use to list the known elements. The table consists of individual tiles for each of
the elements. What information can we find on the Periodic Table? That is what the next section is all about.
.
What information can we find on the Periodic Table?
The information that most commonly appears on each tile of the Periodic Table
is the following:
• The chemical symbol; and
• The atomic number
The diagram below shows an example of one of the tiles on the Periodic Table.
Other versions of the Periodic Table may contain additional information, such as:
• The element name; and/or
• The atomic mass, usually indicted at the bottom of each tile for an element.
The diagrams below show examples of how this information is sometimes presented.

How are the elements arranged on the Periodic Table?

The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. The element with the smallest atomic number is hydrogen (
H: atomic number = 1) is in the top left hand corner of the table. The elements with the largest atomic number are found at the
bottom of the table. The elements are also arranged in regions and these regions are often presented in different colours.
The following Periodic Table shows us where the metals, non-metals and semi-metals can be found.
We can summaries:
•The metals are found on the left of the Periodic Table, reaching across almost the entire table, except the top right hand corner.
•In the table above, the metals are blue.
•The non-metals are found in a relatively small, triangular region at the top right hand side of the table. In the table above, t
•he non-metals are red.
•A few elements that have metallic and non-metallic properties (called the semi-metals) separate the metals from the non-metals.
•They occur in a diagonal strip on the right hand side of the table. In the table above, the semi-metals are yellow.
•All tables have rows and columns. Vertical runs 'up and down', and horizontal runs 'from side to side'. In a conventional table the
•columns run vertically, and the rows run horizontally.
•There are special words to describe the columns and rows of the Periodic Table.
•The following diagram shows what the column and rows are called.

•Groups: The vertical columns of the Periodic Table are called groups. The groups on the Periodic Table are numbered in such a
•way that Group 1 is on the left. The groups are numbered from 1 to 18.
•Periods: The horizontal rows of the Periodic Table are called periods. The first period is at the top of the table.
Activity one: Periodic table
1. What does the atomic number tell us about the atoms of an element?
2. How many protons are there in oxygen atoms?
3. In most oxygen atoms, how many neutrons are there?
4. In a neutral oxygen atom, how many electrons will there be?
5. What is the charge on protons and electrons?
6. How are the protons, neutrons and electrons (the sub-atomic particles) arranged in an atom?
7. Draw a model of an oxygen atom in the space provided. Label your diagram.

2. Names of Compounds
Each compound has a unique name
It is just as important for each compound to have a unique name. The following example will help you see why:

•The two compounds CO and CO2 consist of the same two elements, carbon and oxygen.
•If we named them both 'carbon oxide' (since they are both made of carbon and oxygen), we could easily confuse them.
•Under certain circumstances that could create problems, because CO is much more poisonous to humans and animals than CO2.
•So it is easy to see why each compound needs a unique name.
•When we write the chemical formulae for compounds, they are always a combination of the symbols of the elements in the
•compound. For example, when we see the formula NaCl, we know that this compound consists of Na and Cl.
•When we name compounds, the names of the elements in the compound are combined and sometimes changed slightly, to
•make a name for the compound.
•When we hear the name sodium chloride, for instance, it is quite obvious that the compound being described must consist of
•sodium and chlorine.
•But, why is it chloride and not chlorine?
•Well, as you will see shortly, when we join up the names of the elements, the one that is named last is changed.
•All the above may sound very complicated and for this reason a system has been developed for naming compounds.
The system was developed by the International Union of Pure and Applied
•Chemistry (IUPAC).
•The system is designed in such a way that the name of a compound describes the elements it contains and how they are combined.
•The IUPAC system for naming compounds is very complex, but we do not need to learn all its rules.
•At this point we only need to learn how to name compounds consisting of two elements.
•At this level we have to distinguish between two types of compounds, because the type of compound determines how it should be
•named.
Type 1: Compounds that contain a metal and a non-metal
For compounds of this type, the rule is simple. The metal comes first and the non-metal second. The name of the non-metal changes
slightly: the suffix –ide replaces the ending of the name.
All compounds of this type form crystal lattices rather than molecules.

Activity two: Naming compounds of metals and non-metals

INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Refer to the Periodic Table and complete the following table.
2. You need to identify the elements which make up the compound and give the name of the compound.
Type 2: Compounds that contain only non-metals
This type of compound is slightly more complicated to name. There are three rules that you have to follow. They are as follows:

Formula Which elements does it Name

consist of?
Li2O
KCl
CuO
NaBr
Rule 1:
The name of the element further to the left on the Periodic Table comes first, followed by the name of the element further to the right
on the table. The name of the second element changes slightly: the suffix -ide replaces the ending of the name.
For example:
• oxygen becomes oxide
• fluorine becomes fluoride
• chlorine become chloride
• nitrogen becomes nitride
Rule 2:
When two or more compounds have different numbers of the same elements (like CO and CO2 in our example above), we must
add prefixes to avoid confusion. The first four prefixes are listed in the table below:
Here are some examples of how this rule should be applied:
Compounds of carbon and oxygen:
• CO - carbon monoxide (notice that it is not mono-oxide, but monoxide)
• CO2 - carbon dioxide
Compounds of nitrogen and oxygen:
• NO2 - nitrogen dioxide
• N2O4 - dinitrogen tetroxide (did you notice how tetraoxide becomes tetroxide?)
Compounds of sulfur and oxygen:
• SO2 - sulfur dioxide
• SO3 - sulfur trioxide
We are going to practice what we have learnt so far in the next two short activities. First, we will write names from formulae.
Activity three: Writing names from the formulae of compounds
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. How would you name the following compounds? Write the name next to each formula in the table below.
2. Draw a picture of your molecule in the final column of the table.

Formula of the Name of the compound Picture of one molecule of

the
compound
CO2
H2O
PF3
SF4
CCl4
hydrogen fluoride
dihydrogen sulfide
sulfur trioxide
carbon monoxide

There is one additional rule - an easy one to remember!

Rule 3:
Many compounds are not usually referred to by their systematic names. Instead, they have common names that are more widely
known. For example, we use the name water for H2O, ammonia for NH3, and methane for CH4.
3. Chemical reactions
In Grade 8 Matter and Materials we learnt about chemical reactions for the first time. Can you remember the main ideas about
chemical reactions? Here they are again:
During chemical reactions, materials are changed into new materials with new chemical and physical properties.
The materials we start with are called reactants, and the new materials that form are called products.
During a chemical reaction, atoms are rearranged. This requires that bonds are broken in the reactants and new bonds are
formed in the products.
•The water molecule in the top right shows what a particle of water would look like.
•We cannot see water particles with our eyes therefore we have to imagine them.
•This is why the water molecule is inside a thought bubble.
•We call this a sub-microscopic representation.
•The beaker of water shows what water looks like to our eyes.
•We call this a macroscopic representation, because it is observable.
•That means it can be observed by using our senses such as seeing, feeling, hearing, tasting or touching.
•The chemical formula on the left uses chemical symbols to represent water.
•We have learnt that chemical formulae are made up of element symbols.
•We can think of chemical symbols and formulae as a chemical 'language', because they tell a story.
•The 'story' told by the formula H2O is that a water molecule consists of two atoms of H and one atom of O.
•The formula 'H2O' is a symbolic representation.
We can write these equations for the reactions using drawings, words and/or symbols.
1. Word equations
When we represent a chemical reaction in terms of words, we write a word equation. For example, when hydrogen gas reacts
with oxygen gas to form water, we can write a word equation for the reaction as follows:
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
To the left of the arrow, we have the 'before' situation. This side represents the substances we have before the reaction takes place.
They are called the reactants. What are the
reactants of this reaction?
To the right of the arrow we have the 'after' situation. This sides represents the substances that we have after the reaction has
taken place. They are called the products. What is the product of this reaction?
2. Picture equations
The same reaction of hydrogen reacting with oxygen, can also be represented
in pictures called sub microscopic diagrams. The diagram below shows that the
atoms in two hydrogen molecules (H 2) and one oxygen molecule (O 2) on the
left rearrange to form the two water molecules (H 2O) on the right of the arrow.
Hydrogen atoms are white circles and oxygen atoms are red circles.
What kind of representation is this: macroscopic, sub microscopic, or symbolic?

3. Chemical equations
When we represent a chemical reaction in terms of chemical formulae
(symbols), it is called a chemical equation. The chemical equation for the above reaction would be as follows:
2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
When you look at the reaction equation above you will notice two kinds of numbers:
• Numbers in front of chemical formulae in the equation. They are called coefficients.
• Smaller numbers used inside and below the chemical formulae. These are called subscripts.
Coefficients and subscripts mean different things
Coefficients and subscripts in chemical equations
Why is there a '2' in front of the formula for water (H 2O) in the chemical equation for water? This is because two molecules of H 2O
can be made from two molecules of H2 and one molecule of O 2 in our reaction. The numbers in front of the formulae in the chemical
equation are called coefficients. They represent the numbers of individual molecules that are in the chemical reaction. You will notice
that O2 does not have a coefficient in the reaction above. When there is no coefficient, it means that just one molecule of that
substance takes part in the reaction. When we read the formula, the subscripts tell us how many atoms of a particular element are I
n one molecule of that compound.
Balanced Chemical Equations
Did you notice that the numbers and types of atoms are the same on the left and on the right of the reaction? The reactants have
four H atoms and two O atoms. The products have four H atoms and two O atoms. When this is true of a reaction equation, we say
the equation is balanced.
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
The specific compound methane (CH 4) reacts with the specific element oxygen (O 2) to produce the specific compounds,
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). Since each substance has one chemical formula any change in the chemical formula changes
the specific compound(s) involved in the reaction! NEVER CHANGE THE CHEMICAL FORMULAS OF THE COMPOUNDS!!!!
To balance a chemical equation, two absolute requirements must be met:
The first requirement is “The same kinds of elements must be present in the reactants and the products.” In our reaction, we have
the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) in the reactants and these same elements appear in the products.
We have no other elements appearing on either side of the equation.
Kind of atoms C H O
Left hand side(reactants) √ √ √
Right hand side(products) √ √ √

The specific compound methane (CH 4) reacts with the specific element oxygen (O 2) to produce the specific compounds,
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). Since each substance has one chemical formula any change in the chemical formula
changes the specific compound(s) involved in the reaction! NEVER CHANGE THE CHEMICAL FORMULAS OF THE COMPOUNDS!!
We are ready for the second absolute requirement: “The number of atoms of each element must be the same on both sides of
the equation.” In our equation, we have one atom of carbon on both sides – that is good. We have four atoms of hydrogen as
reactants, and only two atoms of hydrogen as products – that is not good. We have two atoms of oxygen as reactants and three
atoms of oxygen as products – that is also not good.

No. of atoms C H O
Left hand side(reactants) 1√ 4 2
Right hand side(products) 1√ 2 3

The carbon is balanced.

The oxygen is not balanced, we need to get it to a common number, if we multiply both by two, we will have oxygen on the left
and 6 oxygen on the right. So we should use our maths knowledge and look at the lowest common multiple of two and three which
is six.
So if we multiply the oxygen on the left by three and the oxygen on the right by two, the oxygen atoms will be balanced.

No. of atoms C H O
Left hand side(reactants) 1√ 4 2x3=6√
Right hand side(products) 1√ 2 3x2=6√

CH4 + 3 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

By balancing the oxygen we have balanced the hydrogen atoms.
The equation is now balanced.
Let us do another example, but we will start with a word equation:
Nitrogen + Hydrogen → Ammonia
In symbols: N2 + H2 → NH3

No. of atoms C H O
Left hand side(reactants) 1√ 4√ 6√
Right hand side(products) 1√ 4√ 6√
Step 1:

Kind of atoms N H
Left hand side(reactants) √ √
Right hand side(products) √ √

Step 2

No. of atoms N H
Left hand side(reactants) 2 2
Right hand side(products) 1 3

Let us balance the hydrogen first:

No. of atoms N H
Left hand side(reactants) 2 2x3=6
Right hand side(products) 1 3x2=6

N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
By balancing the hydrogen we have balanced the nitrogen atoms.
 Watch the video below to consolidate balancing of equations.
[Link]
Activity four: Balancing Equations
Balance the following chemical equations using the steps above.
1) Fe + O2 → Fe2O3
2) C2H4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
3) P2O5 + H2O → H3PO4
4) Al4C3 + H2O → Al(OH)3 + CH4
5) NH4NO3 → N2 + O2 + H2O
6) Na2O + H2O → NaOH
7) Na2SiO3 + HF → H2SiO3 + NaF
8) C3H5N3O9 → CO2 + N2 + O2 + H2O
9) NaHCO3 + H3C6H5O7 → CO2 + H2O + Na3C6H5O7
10) KClO3 → KCl + O2
4. Reactions of metals with oxygen
In these reactions, the elements that react with oxygen are all metals. The products are all metal oxides. What exactly are
metal oxides?
They are compounds in which a metal is combined with oxygen, in some fixed ratio.
The general reaction of metals with oxygen
metal + oxygen → metal oxide
No. of atoms N H
Left hand side(reactants) 2√ 6√
Right hand side(products) 2√ 6√

The reaction of iron with oxygen

We will be looking at how iron reacts with oxygen. In some cases, you might use steel wool for this experiment. Do you know what
steel wool is? It is wire wool made of very fine steel threads. Steel is an alloy made mostly of iron. So, when we look at how steel wool
burns in oxygen, we are actually looking at how iron reacts with oxygen.
Watch the video below and look at picture below before completing activity five below.
BURN STEEL WOOL.mp4
[Link]
Activity five: Oxygen
1. We used steel wool in this demonstration, but what is steel wool mostly made of?
2. Look at the metal before it is burned. Describe what it looks like.
3. Can you see the oxygen that the metal will react with? Can you describe it?
4. What do you observe during the reaction? Describe anything you see, hear, or smell.
5. What does the product of the reaction look like? Describe it in as much detail as possible.
The formation of rust
Rust is a word to describe the flaky, crusty, reddish-brown product that forms on iron when it reacts with oxygen in the air.
When iron is exposed to oxygen in the air, a similar reaction occurs, but much more slowly. The iron is gradually 'eaten away'
as it reacts slowly with the oxygen. Under wet conditions iron will rust more quickly. Rust is actually a mixture of different oxides
of iron, but the Fe2O3 of our earlier example is an important part of that. The rusting of iron is actually a good example of the
process of corrosion.
Rusting tends to happen much faster near the ocean. Not only are there water droplets, but these droplets have salt in them and this
makes them even more corrosive. Rusting also happens more quickly in the presence of acids. Inside laboratories, or factories
where acids are used or stored, the air is also very corrosive. When the air in a specific area contains moisture mixed with acid or
salt, we refer to the area as having a corrosive climate. If you live in a corrosive climate, for example near the ocean, it is often
better to make the window frames and doors of your house from wood instead of iron and steel, because wood does not rust. Many
people also use aluminium as this metal does not rust.
Ways to prevent rust

Rust forms on the surface of an iron or steel object, when that surface comes into contact with oxygen. The oxygen molecules collide
with the iron atoms on the surface of the object, and they react to form iron oxide. I

Paint provides a barrier to rust

If we wanted to prevent the iron atoms and oxygen molecules from making contact, we would need to place a barrier between them.
That is what we are doing when we paint an iron surface to protect it from rust. Paint is not the ultimate barrier, though. If the paint
surface is scratched, or it starts to peel off, the metal will be exposed and rust can still form.
Other metals as barriers to rust
Rust is a porous material. This means that air and water can penetrate through the rust on the surface of the object to reach the iron
underneath. The iron will continue to corrode even if it has a thick layer of rust covering it. So even though the iron surface is covered,
it is not protected, because the oxygen molecules can still reach the iron to react with it. There are a number of other ways to stop
or slow down rust. One way to protect the iron surface is to cover it with a metal that does not corrode, like chromium, for instance.
Taps and bathroom fittings are often made of iron that has been 'chromed'. They have been covered with a layer of chromium to
protect the iron surface from contact with the air.
Zinc also reacts with oxygen to form zinc oxide:
Zinc oxide (ZnO) is not a porous oxide, but forms a dense protective layer that cannot be penetrated by oxygen or water. Iron can
be coated with a thin layer of zinc in a process called galvanizing. The zinc layer quickly reacts with oxygen to become zinc oxide.
This layer protects the zinc underneath it from being further oxidized. It also protects the iron underneath the zinc from contact with
oxygen.
The following diagram shows a segment of galvanized steel, with a scratch in the protective coating.
Iron that is galvanised is used for many different purposes. You would most probably have seen it being used as galvanised
roof panels or other galvanised building materials, such as screws, nails, pipes, or floors.
The reaction of magnesium with oxygen

Magnesium is in group 2 in the Periodic Table. Do you remember that we said that elements in the same group will behave
similarly? This means that they will react in a similar way. We have studied how magnesium reacts with oxygen, but calcium,
for example, will behave in a similar way.
Watch the video below and look at picture below before completing activity six below.
Burning Magnesium
[Link]
Magnesium ribbon burning
Activity six: Magnesium
1. Describe the physical form (shape) of the metal in this experiment.
2. What do we call reactions where a substance burns in air?
3. How would you describe the physical appearance or colour of the metal before it is burned?
4. Can you see the oxygen that the metal will react with? Can you describe it?
5. What do you observe during the reaction? Describe anything you see, hear, or smell.
6. What does the product of the reaction look like? Describe it in as much detail as possible.
5. Reactions of non-metals with oxygen
Oxygen is all around us in the air we breathe. It is a very reactive element. When an element is reactive, it means that it will
readily react with many other substances. We saw evidence of the reactive nature of oxygen when we observed how it reacted with
iron and magnesium to form metal oxides. In this chapter we look at a few reactions of non-metals with oxygen.
The general reaction of non-metals with oxygen
When a non-metal burns in oxygen, a non-metal oxide forms as the product.
Here is the word equation for the general reaction:
non-metal + oxygen → non-metal oxide
Can you see that it looks similar to the word equation for the reaction between a metal and oxygen? The only difference is that the
word 'metal' has been replaced with 'non-metal' on both sides of the equation. Non-metal oxides have different chemical properties to
metal oxides.
The reaction of carbon with oxygen
Watch the video below and look at picture below before completing activity seven below.
Carbon burning
[Link]

Coal is a form of carbon that is used as fuel for many different purposes. It is one of the
primary fossil fuels that humans use to generate electricity for powering our industries, our activities and our living spaces.
Activity seven: Coal burning in air
.
The energy in coal comes from the energy stored in plants and other organisms that lived hundreds of millions of years ago.
Over the millennia, layers of dead plants and other biological waste were covered by layers of water and soil. The heat and
pressure from the top layers caused the plant remains to turn into energy-rich coal.

The energy released by burning coal is used to generate electrical energy in coal-powered power stations. Coal is a form of carbon
and when it burns
in oxygen we can represent the
reaction with the following word equation:
carbon + oxygen →carbon dioxide
Draw a picture equation for this reaction in the space below.

Convert the picture equation into a chemical equation. Is it balanced?

What group is carbon in on the Periodic Table?

The other elements in the same group as carbon will react in the same way as carbon with oxygen. Since coal is a non-renewable
energy source as well as one that causes pollution and other environmental problems, scientists and engineers continue to look for
alternative fuels and energy sources to eventually replace coal as an energy source.
The reaction of sulphur with oxygen
Watch the video below and look at picture below before completing activity eight below.
Sulfur
[Link]
What is the name of the product of the reaction between sulfur and oxygen? Use the name of the product and the general
equation given at the start of the module to complete the following word equation:
sulfur + oxygen → sulfur dioxide
Sulfur burns in oxygen to form sulfur dioxide. Sulfur dioxide is sometimes used as a preservative for dried fruits, such as
dried peaches and apricots and the guava rolls that so many of us love to eat. The fact that it is toxic means that very small
quantities of it can be added to food to preserve it. In very small quantities SO2 does not permanently harm a large organism
such as a human being, but bacteria cannot survive when it is present. Sulfur dioxide is also an important preservative in
many South African wines.

Activity eight: The reaction between sulfur and oxygen

.
In the following activity we are going to review word equations, picture equations and chemical equations, using the reaction between
sulfur and oxygen as our context.
You wrote the word equation for the reaction between sulfur and oxygen above. Did you write the following?
sulfur + oxygen →sulfur dioxide
QUESTIONS:
1. What group is sulfur in on the Periodic Table?
2. What are the reactants of this reaction? Write their names and formulas.
3. What is the product of the reaction? Write its name and formula.
4. Now, use the formulas of the reactants and products to write a chemical equation.
5. When is a reaction balanced?
6. Is your reaction above balanced? Why do you say so?
7. Draw a picture equation for the reaction, using the example of carbon above as guide.

6. Acids, bases and the pH value

The concept of pH
pH is a measure of how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges between the
values of 1 and 14. In science and in everyday life, we measure the acidity of substances
in pH units. We could say that the 'acidity' of a specific shampoo has a pH of 5.5. pH is the unit of measurement and 5.5 is be
the number indicating the relative acidity on the pH scale.
It has become acceptable, however, for us to rather say: "The pH of this shampoo is 5,5."
Acids have pH values below 7;
Bases have pH values above 7; and
Neutral substances have pH values equal to 7.
This information has been summarised visually in the following diagram.
Indicators

What is an acid-base-indicator?
We know that some substances change colour when they react with an acid or a base. These substances are called
acid-base indicators, which can show us if a substance is an acid or a base. Different indicators change colour at
different pH values. The table above shows a selection of acid-base indicators and the colours they will have at different pH values.
By changing to different colours in the presence of an acid or a base, indicators can show us if a substance is an acid or a base.
In the next section we are going to learn about a special indicator that is so sensitive that it not only tells us whether a substance
is an acid or a base, but also what its approximate pH is!
Litmus does not change colour in the presence of a neutral substance, but respondsto acids and bases in the following way:
•litmus is red in the presence of an acid; and
.
•litmus is blue in the presence of base.
Activity nine: Acids and bases
In the following picture, the three beakers contain three different solutions. Red cabbage water was added to each of the beakers.
Answer the following questions.
1) Which solution, A, B or C, is the most acidic? Motivate your answer.
2) Which solution, A, B or C, is the most basic? Motivate your answer.
3) Which solution, A, B or C, is neutral? Motivate your answer.
4) What do you think would happen to the colour of solution A if we mixed it with solution B? Motivate your answer.
7. Reactions of acids with bases
Neutralisation and pH
What is neutralisation?
When acids and bases react together, we call this a neutralisation reaction. A base reacts with an acid, to make it less acidic/ neutral.
An acid reacts with a base, to make it less basic/neutral.
Watch the video below before completing activity nine below.
Reaction of Baking Soda and Vinegar
[Link]
Activity ten: What is acid rain?
1. Which three gases are shown in the diagram that contribute to the formation of acid rain? Write their names and formulae. (3)
2. What are some of the sources of these gases? You can do some extra reading about this to help you answer this question. (3)
3. Write the equations for how two of these gases which you have learnt about react with the water in the atmosphere to form
acids. (4)
4. What are the names of these two acids? (2)
5. What are some of the environmental impacts of acid rain? Study the diagram for some clues and do some extra reading. (6)
6. Acid rain can also damage buildings as it 'eats away' the stone. What property of acids allow it to do this? (2)
7. Factories used to have quite short funnels to let out the smoke, but it was found that this caused many problems in the local towns and cities
near the factory as the gases would combine with water in the immediate environment to cause acid rain. Factories then started to build much
higher smoke funnels so that the smoke was let out high enough to be blown further away. Do you think this is an efficient way to help reduce
acid rain? Explain your answer. (2)
8. Do some research to find out about the possible ways to prevent or minimize the formation of acid rain? Write a paragraph to summarize
these methods below. (5)
The general reaction of an acid with a metal oxide
Metal oxides are formed from the reaction between a metal and oxygen.
Metal oxides are basic. When we dissolve them in water, they form solutions with pH values above 7.
Non-metal oxides are formed from the reaction between a non-metal and oxygen. Non-metal oxides are acidic. When they dissolve
in water, they form solutions with pH values below 7.
Here is the same summary, in table form, with some examples added:

The reaction between magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid

Watch the video below before completing activity ten below.
Reaction of magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid
[Link]
General equation for the reaction of an acid with a metal oxide
Can you remember learning that an acid-base reaction is an exchange reaction?
We learnt that:
• The acid contributes H towards making a water molecule;
• The base contributes O or OH towards making a water molecule; and
• Whatever is left of the acid and the base after making a H 2O molecule combines to form a salt.
The general word equation for the reaction between an acid and a base is:
acid + base → salt + water
Since the base in our reaction is a metal oxide we can write:
acid + metal oxide → salt + water
This is the general word equation for the reaction between an acid and a metal oxide. The type of salt that forms will depend
on the specific acid and metal oxide which were used in the reaction.
Equations for the reaction between magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid
Now we are going to learn how to write equations for our actual reaction.
.
Activity eleven: Writing the chemical equation
.
The following steps will guide you:
1. The acid of our reaction was hydrochloric acid. Write its chemical formula.
2. What is the name and formula of the metal oxide we used?
3. Now, let's try to predict the products of the reaction. We know that water will be one of the products.
4. Write what remains of the base (MgO) after we have taken away the O (to make water).
5. Write what remains of the acid (HCl) after we have taken away the H (to make water). (Remember we need two H to make one H 2O
6. Now put the two remaining fragments together. Place the metal first and remember that 2 HCl will leave 2 Cl after the 2 H has
been given to O to make water. One Mg and 2 Cl makes...
Now, let's put it all together, first the reactants, then the products:
2 HCl + MgO → MgCl2 + H2O
7. Let's check quickly if the reaction is balanced.
a) How many H atoms on the left hand side and on the right hand side?
Are they balanced?
b) How many Cl atoms on the left hand side and on the right hand side?
Are they balanced?
c) How many O atoms on the left hand side and on the right hand side?
Are they balanced?
Since the numbers of each type of atom is the same on either side of the equation, we can confirm that it is balanced.
.
Finally, let's use the chemical equation to write a word equation for the reaction:
hydrochloric acid + magnesium oxide → magnesium chloride + water
General equation for the reaction of an acid with a metal hydroxide
Watch the video below before completing activity eleven below
Reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
[Link]
You learnt that an acid-base reaction can be represented by the following general word equation:
acid + base → salt + water
The base in our reaction was a metal hydroxide, so the general equation becomes:
acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
This is the general equation for the reaction between an acid and a metal hydroxide. The type of salt that forms will depend on the
specific acid and metal hydroxide which were used in the reaction.
Equations for the reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
Now we are going to learn how to write equations for our actual reaction.
Activity twelve: Writing the chemical equation
The following steps will guide you:
1. The acid of our reaction was hydrochloric acid. Write its chemical formula.
2. What is the name and formula of the metal hydroxide we used?
3. Now, let's try to predict the products of the reaction. We know that water will be one of the products.
4. Write what remains of the base after we have taken away the OH to make water.
5. Write what remains of the acid after we have taken away the H to make water. Remember we need two H to make one H 2O,
but NaOH has already contributed one O and one H. Now put the two fragments together. Place the metal from the base first and
the non-metal from the acid. One Na and one Cl makes...
6. Now, let's put it all together, in the following order:
Acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
7. Let's check quickly if the reaction is balanced.
a) How many H atoms on the left and on the right? Are they balanced?
b) How many Cl atoms on the left and on the right? Are they balanced?
c) How many O atoms on the left and on the right? Are they balanced?
8. Once you have performed this reaction and you are left with a neutral solution, you decide you want to recover the sodium
chloride (table salt). How will you do this?
Finally, let's use the chemical equation to write a word equation for the reaction:
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water
The general reaction of an acid with a metal carbonate
Watch the video below before completing activity twelve below
Reaction between calcium carbonate (chalk) and hydrochloric acid
[Link]
Now that we have watched the reaction between a metal carbonate (CaCO3) and an acid (HCl), we can write an equation for
the reaction. We will begin by writing a general equation and end with one that matches the reaction that we have just investigated.
.
General equation for the reaction of an acid with a metal carbonate
The general equation for the reaction between an acid and a base is as follows:
acid + base → salt + water
If we replace 'base' with 'metal carbonate', we get:
acid + metal carbonate → salt + water
But wait; there was a third product in our reaction! Can you remember what it was? (Hint: Bubbles formed, so it was a gas.)
We need to make it clear that CO 2 was a product of the reaction, so the correct general word equation would be:
acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
The type of salt that forms will depend on the specific acid and metal carbonate which were used in the reaction.
Equations for the reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid
Now we are going to learn how to write equations for our actual reaction.
Activity thirteen: Writing the chemical equation
The following steps will guide you:
1. The acid of our reaction was hydrochloric acid. Can you write its chemical formula?
2. What is the name and formula of the metal carbonate we used?
3. Now, let's try to predict the products of the reaction. We know that water and carbon dioxide will be two of the products.
4. Write what remains of the base after we have taken away the CO 3 to make
CO2 and leave one O to make water.
5. Write what remains of the acid after we have taken away the H to make water. Remember we need two H to make one H2O
and CaCO3 has only contributed one O.
6. Now put the two fragments together. Place the metal from the base first and the non-metal from the acid Ca and 2 Cl makes...
7. Now, let's put it all together, first the reactants, then the products:
2 HCl + CaCO3→ CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
8. Let's check quickly if the reaction is balanced.
a) How many H on the left and right? Are they balanced?
b) How many Cl on the left and right? Are they balanced?
c) How many O on the left and right? Are they balanced?
d) How many C on the left and right? Are they balanced?
Finally, let's use the chemical equation to write a word equation for the reaction:
hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate → calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
Applications for calcium carbonate
Calcium carbonate is found in many places outside of the laboratory. It is found in different types of rocks around the world,
for example limestone, chalk and marble.
The Cango Caves near Oudtshoorn, South Africa, are situated in a limestone ridge and
contain spectacular limestone formations. Such caves are the result of water high in
carbonic acid acting upon limestone deposits in ancient rock layers.
Calcium carbonate is also the main part of shells of various marine organisms, snails, pearls, oysters and bird eggshells. It is also
found in the exoskeletons of crustaceans (such as crabs, prawns and lobsters).

Calcium carbonate also has many applications. In industry, the main application is in construction as it is used in various building
materials and in cement.
Calcium carbonate is used in many adhesives, paints and in ceramics. It is also used in swimming pools to adjust the pH. Calcium
carbonate is also used in agriculture in the form of lime powder. Agricultural lime is made by grinding up limestone or chalk. It is added
to the soil if the soil is too acidic to increase the pH. It also provides plants with a source of calcium.
8. Reactions of acids with metals
When hydrogen gas is released in a reaction it will immediately rise up, because hydrogen is less dense than air.
If you filled a balloon with hydrogen, it would float up and you would need to tie a string to it to prevent it from floating away!
Another interesting thing about hydrogen is that it reacts explosively with oxygen if you bring a flame near it. The reaction between
a large quantity of hydrogen and oxygen in the air produces a beautiful orange fireball and a very loud boom!
General equation for the reaction of an acid with a metal
Watch the video below before completing activity thirteen below
Reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid
[Link]
The general word equation for the reaction between an acid and a metal is:
acid + metal →salt + hydrogen gas
The type of salt that forms will depend on the specific metal and acid which are used in the reaction.
.
Equations for the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid
Now let's write equations for our actual reaction from the last investigation.
Activity fourteen: Writing the chemical equation
The following steps will guide you:
1. The acid of our reaction was hydrochloric acid. Can you write its chemical formula?
2. What is the name and formula of the metal we used?
3. Now, let's try to predict the products of the reaction. We know that hydrogen gas will be one of the products. Write the chemical
formula for hydrogen gas.
4. Write what remains of the acid (HCl) after we have taken away the H to make H 2. (Remember we need two H to make one H 2).
5. The two Cl and the Mg are exactly what are needed to make magnesium chloride. Write the formula below.
6. Now, let's write the reaction; first the reactants, then the products:
2 HCl + Mg → MgCl2+ H2
Let's check quickly if the reaction is balanced.
a) How many H on the left and right? Are they balanced?
b) How many Cl on the left and right? Are they balanced?
c) How many Mg on the left and right? Are they balanced?
Since the numbers of each type of atom is the same on either side of the equation, we can confirm that it is balanced.
7. Finally, let's use the chemical equation to write a word equation for the reaction.
9. GLOSSARY
Acidity: this word is related to the word 'acid', so is the word 'acidic'; a substance is strongly acidic when it has a high (degree of)
acidity
Acid rain: rainwater that is unusually acidic as a result of dissolved non-metal oxides that have entered the atmosphere
Alternative: different
Atomic number: a unique number that represents a given element, and shows its position on the periodic table; the number of
protons found in the nucleus
Balanced : a balanced equation reaction has the same numbers of atoms of a particular type on opposite sides of the reaction
equation
Barrier : a fence or other obstacle that keeps things apart
Bond : a force between atoms in a compound, holding them together
Camera flash: a device (usually attached to the camera) that provides a quick burst of light at the instant that the photo is taken
Characteristic: a quality or feature of an object or item; for example, one of the characteristics of an acid is that it is corrosive
Chemical bond: a special attractive force that holds the atoms in a molecule together
Chemical equation: an equation that describes a chemical reaction using the chemical
formulae of the compounds involved in the reaction
Chemical formula: a combination of element symbols that shows the types and number of atoms in one molecule of a given
compound; a unique string of symbols (letters and numbers) that represents a chemical compound
Chemical reaction: a process in which atoms in substances, called reactants, are rearranged to form new substances, called products
Chemist : a person who has studied chemistry and uses this knowledge to do his/her job
Chromed metal: metal that is covered by a thin layer of chromium
Coefficient: a number that is placedin front of a chemical formula in a reaction equation; it shows the number of molecules of that
type taking part in the reaction, for example2 mg
Collide : to bump into something
Combustion : a type of chemical reaction where a substance and oxygen react during burning to form a new product
Compound: a pure substance in which atoms of two or more different chemical elementsare bonded in some fixed ratio
Convention: a way in which something is usually done
Corrosion: the gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by chemical reaction with substances in the environment
Corrosive : a corrosive substance is something that causes corrosion; substances that are
corrosive can cause burns on the skin and damage to certain surfaces
Crystal lattice: in some compounds, the atoms are arranged in a regular pattern in a fixed ratio to form a lattice structure; a lattice
looks like a mesh or trellis
Density: the mass of a substance in a given space (volume)
Detour: to take a roundabout route, either to make a visit along the way, or to avoid something
Diatomic : a diatomic molecule consists of two atoms; h 2 , n2, o2, f2, cl2, br2, and i2 are all examples of elements that consist of
diatomic molecules
Dioxide : a compound that contains two oxygen atoms in its chemical formula; examples are carbon dioxide (co 2) and sulfur dioxide
(so2)
Electrons: the smallest of the three types of sub-atomic particles; they are negatively charged and are located outside the atomic
nucleus
Element : a pure substance that consists of only one type of atom throughout
Exchange reaction: a reaction in which the reactants break up in fragments that are then exchanged, or swapped around
Exposed : when a material is exposed, it is uncovered or unprotected (in this case from oxygen that will react with it)
Fossil fuel: a fuel that was formed from the prehistoric remains of plant and animal life (fossils); it usually has to be extracted from
the earth; examples include oil, coal and natural gas
Fuel : a substance that will release energy when it reacts with another substance; in this context that other substance is usually
oxygen
Galvanised metal: metal that is covered by thin layers of zinc and zinc oxide
Galvanise: to galvanise iron or steel means to cover it with a thin layer of zinc; the zinc reacts with oxygen to form zinc oxide when
it is exposed to air and this forms a strong and impenetrable coating
Generate : to produce something; in this case it refers to some other source of energy being converted to electrical energy (electrical
power or electricity)
Group : the vertical columns of the periodic table are called groups
Identical: exactly the same in every way
Ignite : to set something on fire
Indicator : a substance that changes colour in the presence of another substance, showing that that substance is present
Inert: unreactive; these substances do not react with other substances and do not change into other compounds
Iupac: international union of pure and applied chemistry (acronym)
Iupac system: a system for naming compounds in a way that is unique for each compound
Laboratory acids: acid commonly found in the laboratory
Litmus : a well-known acid-base indicator that turns red when mixed with an acid and blue when mixed with a base
Macroscopic : the macroscopic world includes all the things we can observe with our five senses - things we can see, hear, smell,
touch and taste
Metal: an element that is shiny, ductile and malleable; metals occur on the left and towards the middle of the periodic table
Metal carbonate: a compound with the the general formula mco 3 or m2co3 where m represents a metal atom, c represents a carbon
atom and o represents an oxygen atom
Metal hydroxide: a compound with the the general formula moh or m(oh) 2 where m represents a metal atom, o represents an
oxygen atom and h represents a hydrogen atom
Metal oxide: the product of the reaction between a metal and oxygen; a compound with the general formula mo or m 2o where m
represents a metal atom and o represents an oxygen atom
Molecule : two or more atoms that have chemically bonded with each other; the atoms in a molecule can be of the same kind
(in which case it would be a molecule of an element), or they can be of different kinds (in which case it would be a molecule of a
compound)
Neutralisation reaction: a reaction in which the reactants neutralise each other
Neutralise: to neutralise something means to take away its potency
Neutral solution: a solution with ph = 7
Neutrons : a type of sub-atomic particle similar to protons in mass and size, but neutral (without charge); neutrons together with
protons make up the atomic nucleus
Non-metal: an element that does not have metallic properties; non-metals (excluding hydrogen) occur in the top right-hand corner
of the periodic table
Non-metal oxide: the product of the reaction between a non-metal and oxygen
Non-renewable: non-renewable energy sources refer to sources that can be used up, such as fossil fuels (coal, oil, or natural gas)
Oxidise : when a compound reacts with oxygen, we say it is oxidised; in chemistry, the word oxidise means much more than this,
but in this chapter we will limit ourselves to this simple definition
Penetrate : when liquid or air penetrates into a material, it passes into or through that material (usually because of tiny holes in
the material); something that cannot be penetrated is called impenetrable
Periodic table: a table in which the chemical elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number
Period: the horizontal rows of the periodic table are called periods
Pharmacist : a person who has studied pharmacy and uses this knowledge in the field of health science
Ph : ph measures the acidity and alkalinity of a solution as a number on a scale ranging between 0 and 14
Picture equation: an equation that describes a chemical reaction using diagrams of the particles of the compounds involved in
the reaction
Porous : material that has tiny holes through which liquid or air may pass
Potency : power
Prefix : a bit added at the start of a word, usually to indicate number, e.g.,mono-, di-, or tri
Presence: the state of something existing or being present in a place
Preservative : a substance that is added to products (usually food or beverages) to make them last longer; most preservatives
are toxic to microorganisms, but are added in such small quantities that they do not pose significant harm to humans
Product : a substance that forms during the reaction; it will be present after the reaction has taken place
Protons : sub-atomic particles that are positively charged and occur inside the atomic nucleus along with neutrons
Reactant: the starting substances that undergo change in a chemical reaction
Reactive : elements and compounds that are reactive will readily react with many other substances
Red cabbage indicator: an acid-base indicator made from the sap of red cabbage; red cabbage indicator is also capable of
displaying a range of colours, depending on the ph of the solution with which it is mixed
Renewable: a renewable source of energy cannot be used up, such as water, wind, or solar power
Rust : a reddish- or yellowish-brown, often flaky, coating of iron oxide that is formed on iron or steel by oxidation (when it reacts
with oxygen in the air)
Rust-resistant: a rust-resistant material; one that does not rust
Semi-metal: an element that has properties of both metals and non-metals; the semi-metals occur in a narrow diagonal strip that
separates the metals form the non-metals on the periodic table
Steel : a metal alloy composed of a mixture of iron and other elements (mostly metal); it is very strong and used widely in the
construction industry (also in buildings)
Sub-microscopic: the sub-microscopic world includes things that exist but that we can't see; atoms and molecules can only
be 'seen' as mental pictures and when we draw these, we refer to them as 'sub-microscopic diagrams'
Subscript : a number that is placed inside a chemical formula; it shows the number of atoms of that type in one molecule of
that compound, for example o2
Suffix : a bit added at the end of a word, e.g.,-ide
Symbolic : the symbolic world includes letters and numbers that we use to represent atoms and molecules
Symbol (or element symbol): a unique letter (or letters) that represent a given
Element
Systematic name: the unique name that will be generated for a given compound, if the iupac system for naming compounds is
followed correctly
Tarnish: when a metal surface gets dirty or spotty after reacting with oxygen or other substances in the air, we say it is tarnished
Toxic : poisonous, harmful to living organisms
Unique : the only one of its kind; unlike anything else
Unit: in this chapter, unit means a quantity used as a standard of measurement, e.g. Units of time are second, minute, hour, day,
week, month, year and decade
Universal indicator: an acid-base indicator that can display a range of colours, depending on the ph of the solution with which it is
mixed
Word equation: an equation that describes a chemical reaction using the names of the compounds involved in the reaction
10. Acknowledgements
SASOL Inzalo work book grade 9A
[Link]
Web Pages
[Link] November 2012
[Link] November 2010
[Link] March 2013
[Link] Dec 2013
[Link] September 2013
[Link] November 2016
[Link] November 2016
[Link] March 2017
[Link] October 2013
[Link] February 2015