Mass Relationships in

Chemical Reactions
Chapter 3

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Micro World Macro World
atoms & molecules grams

Atomic mass is the mass of an atom in

atomic mass units (amu)

By definition:
1 atom 12C “weighs” 12 amu

On this scale
1
H = 1.008 amu
16
O = 16.00 amu
2
The average atomic mass is the weighted
average of all of the naturally occurring
isotopes of the element.

3
Example 1
Copper, a metal known since ancient
times, is used in electrical cables and
pennies, among other things.

The atomic masses of its two stable

isotopes, (69.09 percent) and
(30.91 percent), are 62.93 amu and
64.9278 amu, respectively.

Calculate the average atomic mass of

copper. The relative abundances are
given in parentheses.
Example

Strategy
Each isotope contributes to the average atomic mass based on
its relative abundance.

Multiplying the mass of an isotope by its fractional abundance

(not percent) will give the contribution to the average atomic
mass of that particular isotope.
Example
Solution
First the percents are converted to fractions:

69.09 percent to 69.09/100 or 0.6909

30.91 percent to 30.91/100 or 0.3091.

We find the contribution to the average atomic mass for each

isotope, then add the contributions together to obtain the
average atomic mass.

(0.6909) (62.93 amu) + (0.3091) (64.9278 amu) = 63.55 amu

Example

Check
The average atomic mass should be between the two
isotopic masses; therefore, the answer is reasonable.

Note that because there are more than

isotopes, the average atomic mass is closer to 62.93 amu
than to 64.9278 amu.
8
The Mole (mol): A unit to count numbers of particles

Dozen = 12

Pair = 2

The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that

contains as many elementary entities as there
are atoms in exactly 12.00 grams of 12C
1 mol = NA = 6.0221415 x 1023
Avogadro’s number (NA) 9
 eggs
Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of shoes in grams
marbles
atoms
1 mole 12C atoms = 6.022 x 1023 atoms = 12.00 g
1 12C atom = 12.00 amu

1 mole 12C atoms = 12.00 g 12C

1 mole lithium atoms = 6.941 g of Li

For any element

atomic mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)
10
1 12C atom 12.00 g 1.66 x 10-24 g
x =
12.00 amu 6.022 x 10 23 12
C atoms 1 amu

1 amu = 1.66 x 10-24 g or 1 g = 6.022 x 1023 amu

M = molar mass in g/mol

NA = Avogadro’s number 11
Example 2
Helium (He) is a valuable
gas used in industry, low-
temperature research,
deep-sea diving tanks, and
balloons.

How many moles of He

atoms are in 6.46 g of He?

A scientific research helium balloon.

Example

Grams will cancel, leaving the unit mol for the answer, that is,

Thus, there are 1.61 moles of He atoms in 6.46 g of He.

Check
Because the given mass (6.46 g) is larger than the molar mass
of He, we expect to have more than 1 mole of He.
Example 3

Zinc (Zn) is a silvery metal

that is used in making brass
(with copper) and in plating
iron to prevent corrosion.

How many grams of Zn are

in 0.356 mole of Zn?

Zinc
Example
Moles will cancel, leaving unit of grams for the answer. The
number of grams of Zn is

Thus, there are 23.3 g of Zn in 0.356 mole of Zn.

Check Does a mass of 23.3 g for 0.356 mole of Zn seem

reasonable? What is the mass of 1 mole of Zn?
Example 4
Sulfur (S) is a nonmetallic element that is present in coal.

When coal is burned, sulfur is converted to sulfur dioxide and

eventually to sulfuric acid that gives rise to the acid rain
phenomenon.

How many atoms are in 16.3 g of S?

Example
We can combine these conversions in one step as follows:

Thus, there are 3.06 × 1023 atoms of S in 16.3 g of S.

Check
Should 16.3 g of S contain fewer than Avogadro’s number of
atoms?

What mass of S would contain Avogadro’s number of atoms?

 Practice Problems
• 1. How many moles of Mg are in 87.3 g of
Mg?
• 2. Calculate the g of Pb in 12.4 moles of Pb.
• 3. How many atoms of S are in 5.10 moles
of S?
• 4. What is the mass of 1.00 x 1012 Pb
atoms?

18
Molecular mass (or molecular weight) is the sum of
the atomic masses (in amu) in a molecule.

1S 32.07 amu
2O + 2 x 16.00 amu
SO2 64.07 amu
SO2
For any molecule
molecular mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)

1 molecule SO2 = 64.07 amu

1 mole SO2 = 64.07 g SO2 19
Example 5
Calculate the molecular
masses (in amu) of the
following compounds:

(a) sulfur dioxide (SO2), a gas

that is responsible for acid
rain

(b) caffeine (C8H10N4O2), a

SO2
stimulant present in tea,
coffee, and cola beverages
Example
Strategy How do atomic masses of different elements combine
to give the molecular mass of a compound?

Solution To calculate molecular mass, we need to sum all the

atomic masses in the molecule. For each element, we multiply
the atomic mass of the element by the number of atoms of that
element in the molecule. We find atomic masses in the periodic
table (inside front cover).

(a) There are two O atoms and one S atom in SO2, so that

molecular mass of SO2 = 32.07 amu + 2(16.00 amu)

= 64.07 amu
Example
(b) There are eight C atoms, ten H atoms, four N atoms, and
two O atoms in caffeine, so the molecular mass of
C8H10N4O2 is given by

8(12.01 amu) + 10(1.008 amu) + 4(14.01 amu) + 2(16.00 amu)

= 194.20 amu
Example 6
Methane (CH4) is the
principal component of
natural gas.

How many moles of CH4

are present in 6.07 g of CH4
CH4?
Example
We now write

Thus, there is 0.378 mole of CH4 in 6.07 g of CH4.

Check
Should 6.07 g of CH4 equal less than 1 mole of CH4?

What is the mass of 1 mole of CH4?

Example 7
How many hydrogen atoms
are present in 25.6 g of
urea [(NH2)2CO], which is
used as a fertilizer, in
animal feed, and in the
manufacture of polymers?

The molar mass of urea is

60.06 g.

urea
Example
Strategy

We are asked to solve for atoms of hydrogen in 25.6 g of urea.

We cannot convert directly from grams of urea to atoms of
hydrogen.

How should molar mass and Avogadro’s number be used in this

calculation?

How many moles of H are in 1 mole of urea?

Example
We can combine these conversions

into one step:

= 1.03 × 1024 H atoms

Check Does the answer look reasonable?

How many atoms of H would 60.06 g of urea contain?
 Practice Problems
• 1. Calculate the moles of CHCl3 in 198 g of
CHCl3.
• 2. How many molecules of ethane (C2H6) are
present in 0.334 g of C2H6?
• 3. How many hydrogen atoms are in 72.5 g of
isopropanol (C3H8O)?

28
Formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses
(in amu) in a formula unit of an ionic compound.

1Na 22.99 amu

NaCl 1Cl + 35.45 amu
NaCl 58.44 amu

For any ionic compound

formula mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)

1 formula unit NaCl = 58.44 amu

1 mole NaCl = 58.44 g NaCl 29
Mass Spectrometer

Light

Heavy
Light

Heavy
Mass Spectrum of Ne

30
Percent composition of an element in a compound =
n x molar mass of element
x 100%
molar mass of compound
n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole
of the compound
2 x (12.01 g)
%C = x 100% = 52.14%
46.07 g
6 x (1.008 g)
%H = x 100% = 13.13%
46.07 g
1 x (16.00 g)
%O = x 100% = 34.73%
46.07 g

C2H6O 52.14% + 13.13% + 34.73% = 100.0%

31
Example 8

Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is a

colorless, syrupy liquid used in
detergents, fertilizers,
toothpastes, and in carbonated
beverages for a “tangy” flavor.

Calculate the percent

composition by mass of H, P,
and O in this compound.
H3PO4
Example
Solution The molar mass of H3PO4 is 97.99 g. The percent by
mass of each of the elements in H3PO4 is calculated as follows:

Check Do the percentages add to 100 percent? The sum of

the percentages is (3.086% + 31.61% + 65.31%) = 100.01%.
The small discrepancy from 100 percent is due to the way we
rounded off.
Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas

34
Example 9
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
cures scurvy.

It is composed of 40.92
percent carbon (C), 4.58
percent hydrogen (H), and
54.50 percent oxygen (O)
by mass.

Determine its empirical

formula.
Example
Solution If we have 100 g of ascorbic acid, then each
percentage can be converted directly to grams. In this sample,
there will be 40.92 g of C, 4.58 g of H, and 54.50 g of O.
Because the subscripts in the formula represent a mole ratio,
we need to convert the grams of each element to moles. The
conversion factor needed is the molar mass of each element.
Let n represent the number of moles of each element so that
Example
Thus, we arrive at the formula C3.407H4.54O3.406, which gives the
identity and the mole ratios of atoms present. However,
chemical formulas are written with whole numbers. Try to
convert to whole numbers by dividing all the subscripts by the
smallest subscript (3.406):

where the sign means “approximately equal to.”

This gives CH1.33O as the formula for ascorbic acid. Next, we

need to convert 1.33, the subscript for H, into an integer.
Example
This can be done by a trial-and-error procedure:
1.33 × 1 = 1.33
1.33 × 2 = 2.66
1.33 × 3 = 3.99 < 4
Because 1.33 × 3 gives us an integer (4), we multiply all the
subscripts by 3 and obtain C3H4O3 as the empirical formula for
ascorbic acid.

Check
Are the subscripts in C3H4O3 reduced to the smallest whole
numbers?
 Practice Problem
• Determine the empirical formula of a
compound having the following
percentages by mass.
– Potassium (24.75%)
– Manganese (34.77%)
– Oxygen (40.51%)

39
Example 10

A sample of a compound contains 30.46 percent nitrogen and

69.54 percent oxygen by mass, as determined by a mass
spectrometer.

In a separate experiment, the molar mass of the compound is

found to be between 90 g and 95 g.

Determine the molecular formula and the accurate molar mass

of the compound.
Example
Strategy
To determine the molecular formula, we first need to determine
the empirical formula. Comparing the empirical molar mass to
the experimentally determined molar mass will reveal the
relationship between the empirical formula and molecular
formula.

Solution
We start by assuming that there are 100 g of the compound.
Then each percentage can be converted directly to grams; that
is, 30.46 g of N and 69.54 g of O.
Example
Let n represent the number of moles of each element so that

Thus, we arrive at the formula N2.174O4.346, which gives the

identity and the ratios of atoms present. However, chemical
formulas are written with whole numbers.

Try to convert to whole numbers by dividing the subscripts by

the smaller subscript (2.174). After rounding off, we obtain NO2
as the empirical formula.
Example
The molecular formula might be the same as the empirical
formula or some integral multiple of it (for example, two, three,
four, or more times the empirical formula).

Comparing the ratio of the molar mass to the molar mass of the
empirical formula will show the integral relationship between the
empirical and molecular formulas.

The molar mass of the empirical formula NO2 is

empirical molar mass = 14.01 g + 2(16.00 g) = 46.01 g

Example
Next, we determine the ratio between the molar mass and the
empirical molar mass

The molar mass is twice the empirical molar mass. This means
that there are two NO2 units in each molecule of the compound,
and the molecular formula is (NO2)2 or N2O4. The actual molar
mass of the compound is two times the empirical molar mass,
that is, 2(46.01 g) or 92.02 g, which is between 90 g and 95 g.
Example
Check Note that in determining the molecular formula from the
empirical formula, we need only know the approximate molar
mass of the compound. The reason is that the true molar mass
is an integral multiple (1×, 2×, 3×, . . .) of the empirical molar
mass. Therefore, the ratio (molar mass/empirical molar mass)
will always be close to an integer.

N2O4
 Practice problems
• 1. A sample of Boron and Hydrogen contains
6.444 g of B and 1.803 g of respectively. The
molar mass of the compound is about 30 g. What
is the molar molecular formula of the compound.
• 2. What is the molecular formula of a compound
containing only carbon and hydrogen if the
combustion of 1.05 g of the compound produces
3.30 g of CO2 and 1.35 g of H2O? The molar mass
is about 70 g.
46
A process in which one or more substances is changed into one
or more new substances is a chemical reaction.
A chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show what
happens during a chemical reaction:
reactants products
3 ways of representing the reaction of H 2 with O2 to form H2O

47
 Balancing Chemical Equations

1. Write the correct formula(s) for the reactants on

the left side and the correct formula(s) for the
product(s) on the right side of the equation.
Ethane reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water
C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O

2. Change the numbers in front of the formulas

(coefficients) to make the number of atoms of
each element the same on both sides of the
equation. Do not change the subscripts.
2C2H6 NOT C4H12
48
 Balancing Chemical Equations

3. Start by balancing those elements that appear in

only one reactant and one product.
C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O start with C or H but not O

2 carbon 1 carbon multiply CO2 by 2

on left on right
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + H2O

6 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
multiply H2O by 3
on left on right
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O 49
 Balancing Chemical Equations

4. Balance those elements that appear in two or

more reactants or products.
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O multiply O2 by 7
2

2 oxygen 4 oxygen + 3 oxygen = 7 oxygen

on left (2x2) (3x1) on right

C2H6 + 7 O2 remove fraction

2CO2 + 3H2O
2 multiply both sides by 2
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O

50
 Balancing Chemical Equations

5. Check to make sure that you have the same

number of each type of atom on both sides of the
equation.
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O
4 C (2 x 2) 4C
12 H (2 x 6) 12 H (6 x 2)
14 O (7 x 2) 14 O (4 x 2 + 6)
Reactants Products
4C 4C
12 H 12 H
14 O 14 O
51
Example 11
When aluminum metal is exposed to air, a protective layer of
aluminum oxide (Al2O3) forms on its surface. This layer
prevents further reaction between aluminum and oxygen, and
it is the reason that aluminum beverage cans do not corrode.
[In the case of iron, the rust, or iron(III) oxide, that forms is too
porous to protect the iron metal underneath, so rusting
continues.]

Write a balanced equation for the formation of Al2O3.

Example
Multiplying both sides of the equation by 2 gives whole-number
coefficients.

or

Check For an equation to be balanced, the number and types

of atoms on each side of the equation must be the same. The
final tally is

The equation is balanced. Also, the coefficients are reduced to

the simplest set of whole numbers.
 Practice Problems
• KNO3 → KNO2 + O2
• Cl2 + NaI → NaCl + I2
• NH3 + CuO → Cu + N2 + H2O
• KOH + H3PO4→ K3PO4 + H2O
• Fe + O2 → Fe2O3
• Be2C + H2O → Be(OH)2 + CH4

54
 Amounts of Reactants and Products

1. Write balanced chemical equation

2. Convert quantities of known substances into moles
3. Use coefficients in balanced equation to calculate the
number of moles of the sought quantity
4. Convert moles of sought quantity into desired units 55
Example 12
The food we eat is degraded, or
broken down, in our bodies to
provide energy for growth and
function. A general overall
equation for this very complex
process represents the
degradation of glucose (C6H12O6)
to carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O):
C6H12O6

If 856 g of C6H12O6 is consumed

by a person over a certain period,
what is the mass of CO2
produced?
Example
Solution We follow the preceding steps and Figure 3.8.

Step 1: The balanced equation is given in the problem.

Step 2: To convert grams of C6H12O6 to moles of C6H12O6, we
write

Step 3: From the mole ratio, we see that

1 mol C6H12O6 ≏6 mol CO .

2

Therefore, the number of moles of CO2 formed is

Example
Step 4: Finally, the number of grams of CO2 formed is given by

After some practice, we can combine the conversion steps

into one equation:

Example
Check Does the answer seem reasonable?

Should the mass of CO2 produced be larger than the mass of

C6H12O6 reacted, even though the molar mass of CO2 is
considerably less than the molar mass of C6H12O6?

What is the mole ratio between CO2 and C6H12O6?

Example 13

All alkali metals react with water to

produce hydrogen gas and the
corresponding alkali metal hydroxide.

A typical reaction is that between

lithium and water:

Lithium reacting with

water to produce
How many grams of Li are needed to hydrogen gas.
produce 9.89 g of H2?
Example
Strategy The question asks for number of grams of reactant
(Li) to form a specific amount of product (H2). Therefore, we
need to reverse the steps shown in Figure 3.8. From the
equation we see that 2 mol Li 1 mol H2.
Example
Solution The conversion steps are

Combining these steps into one equation, we write

Check There are roughly 5 moles of H2 in 9.89 g H2, so we

need 10 moles of Li. From the approximate molar mass of
Li (7 g), does the answer seem reasonable?
 Practice problems
1. How many g of O2 is needed to produce 2.21 g of
NO2?
2NO(g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)

2. If 209 g of methanol (CH3OH) is used up in a

combustion process, what is the mass of H2O
produced?
2CH3OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 4H2O
63
Limiting Reagent:
Reactant used up first in
the reaction.

CO + 2H2 CH3OH

H2 is the limiting reagent

CO is the excess reagent

64
Example 14

Urea [(NH2)2CO] is prepared by reacting ammonia with carbon

dioxide:

In one process, 637.2 g of NH3 are treated with 1142 g of CO2.

(a) Which of the two reactants is the limiting reagent?

(b) Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed.

(c) How much excess reagent (in grams) is

left at the end of the reaction?
(NH2)2CO
Example
Solution We carry out two separate calculations. First, starting
with 637.2 g of NH3, we calculate the number of moles of
(NH2)2CO that could be produced if all the NH3 reacted
according to the following conversions:

Combining these conversions in one step, we write

Example
Second, for 1142 g of CO2, the conversions are

The number of moles of (NH2)2CO that could be produced if all

the CO2 reacted is

It follows, therefore, that NH3 must be the limiting reagent

because it produces a smaller amount of (NH2)2CO.
Example
(b) Strategy We determined the moles of (NH2)2CO produced
in part (a), using NH3 as the limiting reagent. How do we
convert from moles to grams?

Solution The molar mass of (NH2)2CO is 60.06 g. We use this

as a conversion factor to convert from moles of (NH2)2CO to
grams of (NH2)2CO:

Check Does your answer seem reasonable? 18.71 moles of

product are formed. What is the mass of 1 mole of (NH2)2CO?
Example
(c) Strategy Working backward, we can determine the amount
of CO2 that reacted to produce 18.71 moles of (NH2)2CO. The
amount of CO2 left over is the difference between the initial
amount and the amount reacted.

Solution Starting with 18.71 moles of (NH2)2CO, we can

determine the mass of CO2 that reacted using the mole ratio
from the balanced equation and the molar mass of CO2. The
conversion steps are
Example
Combining these conversions in one step, we write

The amount of CO2 remaining (in excess) is the difference

between the initial amount (1142 g) and the amount reacted
(823.4 g):

mass of CO2 remaining = 1142 g − 823.4 g = 319 g

 Practice problems
1. NO (nitric oxide) reacts with oxygen gas to form NO2, a
dark-brown gas as shown: 2NO (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO (g)
If 0.886 moles of NO is mixed with 0.503 moles of O2,
a) Which is the limiting reagent
b) Calculate the amount of NO2 formed.

2. 2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + 2Fe

If 124 g of Al reacts with 601 g of Fe2O3,
a) Which is the limiting reagent
b) How much Al2O3 is formed?
c) How much of the excess reagent remains? 71
 Reaction Yield

Theoretical Yield is the amount of product that would

result if all the limiting reagent reacted.

Actual Yield is the amount of product actually obtained

from a reaction.

Actual Yield
% Yield = x 100%
Theoretical Yield

72
Example 15
Titanium is a strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal that
is used in rockets, aircraft, jet engines, and bicycle frames. It is
prepared by the reaction of titanium(IV) chloride with molten
magnesium between 950°C and 1150°C:

In a certain industrial operation 3.54 × 107 g of

TiCl4 are reacted with 1.13 × 107 g of Mg.

(a)Calculate the theoretical yield of Ti in grams.

(b)Calculate the percent yield if 7.91 × 106 g of
Ti are actually obtained.
Example
Solution
Carry out two separate calculations to see which of the two
reactants is the limiting reagent. First, starting with 3.54 × 107
g of TiCl4, calculate the number of moles of Ti that could be
produced if all the TiCl4 reacted. The conversions are

so that
Example
Next, we calculate the number of moles of Ti formed from
1.13 × 107 g of Mg. The conversion steps are

And we write

Therefore, TiCl4 is the limiting reagent because it produces a

smaller amount of Ti.
Example

The mass of Ti formed is

(b) Strategy The mass of Ti determined in part (a) is the

theoretical yield. The amount given in part (b) is the actual yield
of the reaction.
Example

Solution The percent yield is given by

Check Should the percent yield be less than 100 percent?

 Atom Economy

Is the measure of the overall efficiency of converting

reactants into useful products.
atom economy = (mass of atoms in desired products) x 100 %
(mass of atoms in reactants)
Example:
Determine the atom economy of the reaction C3H8O3 + H2 → C3H8O2 +
H2O
(determine the molecular mass of C3H8O2, C3H8O3, and H2)
Atom economy = __76.1___ x 100 % = 80.9 %
(92.1 + 2.02)

78