Chapter 3: Communications

network architecture
Networking Physical Structures
 A network is two or more devices connected
through links for the purpose of sharing.
 A set of devices (nodes) connected by
communication links
 Node: Computer, printer, or any device
capable of
sending and/or receiving data
 A link is a communications pathway that
transfers data from one device to another.
Types of connection

There are two possible types of connections:

point-to-point and multipoint

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 Networks
Types of connection
 Point-to-point
 Dedicated link between two devices
 The entire capacity of the channel is reserved
 Most p2p connections use an actual length of wire or
cable to connect the two ends, but other options,
such as microwave or satellite links, are also
possible.
 [Link] remote control, Microwave link
 Multipoint
 More than two devices share a single link
 Capacity of the channel is either
 Spatially shared: Devices can use the link
simultaneously
 Timeshare: Users take turns
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Network architectures
 Client-server
 Peer-to-peer (P2P)
 Hybrid of client-server and P2P

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Client-Server Model
 The device requesting the information is called a client
 The device responding to the request is called a server
 Application layer protocols describe the format of the
requests and responses between the clients and servers
server:
 always-on host
 permanent IP address
 server farms for
scaling
clients:
 communicate with server
 may be intermittently
connected
 may have dynamic IP
addresses
Ch 3 - 6
Servers
 A server is usually a computer that contains information to
be shared with many client systems
 Some servers may require authentication of user control
information to verify the user has access rights
 rely on a central list of user accounts and authorization
 The server runs a service, or process, called a daemon

– daemon typically runs in

the background
– the daemon “listens” for a
request from a client
– the daemon exchanges
appropriate information
with the client when it
“hears” a request

Ch 3 - 7
Peer-to-Peer Networks
 Two or more computers are connected via a network and
can share resources without having a dedicated server
 every connected end device, known as a peer, can function
either as a client or server
 information can be located anywhere on any connected device

– user accounts and access

rights are set individually
on each peer device
– difficult to enforce security
and access policies
– most current operating
systems support file and
print sharing without
requiring additional server
software

Ch 3 - 8
Peer-to-Peer Applications
 Allows a device to act as both a client and server within the
same communication
 requires each end device to provide a user interface and run a
background service
 Can be used on peer-to-peer networks, client/server
networks and across the Internet

Ch 3 - 9
Hybrid of client-server and P2P
Skype
 voice-over-IP P2P application
 centralized server: finding address of remote
party:
 client-client connection: direct (not through
server)
Instant messaging
 chatting between two users is P2P
 centralized service: client presence
detection/location
 user registers its IP address with central
server when it comes online
 user contacts central server to find IP
addresses of buddies

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Processes communicating
Process: program
Client process: process
running within a host.
that initiates
 within same host, two
communication
processes
Server process:
communicate using
process that waits to
inter-process
be contacted
communication
(defined by OS).
 Note: applications with P2P
 processes in different
architectures have client
hosts communicate by processes & server processes
exchanging messages

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 Addressing processes
 to receive messages, process must have identifier
 host device has unique 32-bit IP address
 Q: Is IP address of a host suffice for identifying the
process?

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Addressing processes
 to receive messages,  identifier includes both
process must have IP address and port
identifier numbers associated
 host device has unique with process on host.
32-bit IP address  Example port numbers:
 Q: Is IP address of host  HTTP server: 80
on which process runs  Mail server: 25
suffice for identifying  to send HTTP message
the process?
 A: No, many processes
to [Link]
web server:
can be running on
same host
 IP address:
[Link]
 Port number: 80
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 Topology
 In computer networks topology is used to explain how a network is
physically connected and logical flow of information in the network
 A topology mainly describes how devices are connected and
interact with each other using communication links.
There are mainly two types of topologies, they are:
 Physical Topology:- A physical topology describes
the way in which the computers or nodes are
connected with each other in a computer network.
 Logical Topology: A logical topology describes the
way, data flow from one computer to another.
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 Physical Topology
Arrangement of nodes in a network
How devices are laid out physically
The geometric representation of all the
nodes in a network.

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 Networks
Mesh Topology
 Dedicated point-to-
point link to every other
nodes
 A mesh network with n
nodes has n(n-1)/2
links. A node has n-1
I/O ports (links)
 Advantages: No traffic
problems, robust,
security, easy fault
identification & isolation
 Disadvantages: Difficult
installation/reconfigurat
ion, space, cost
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 Networks

Star Topology
 Dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, called a hub
 Hub acts as an exchange: No direct traffic between
devices
 Advantages: Less expensive, robust
 Disadvantages: dependency of the whole on one
single point, the hub

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 Networks
Bus Topology
 One long cable that links all nodes
 tap, drop line, cable end
 limit on the # of devices, distance between nodes
 Advantages: Easy installation, cheap
 Disadvantages: Difficult reconfiguration, no fault
isolation, a fault or break in the bus stops all
transmission

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 Networks
Ring Topology
 Dedicated point-to-point link only with the two nodes on each
sides
 One direction, repeater
 Advantages: less installation cost, easy to isolate fault at
device level
 Disadvantage: difficult to reconfiguration and troubleshooting
Unidirectional traffic, a break in the ring cab disable the entire
network

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 Networks
Tree Topology
 Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology
and star topology.
 A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the
computers are connected with each other in hierarchical
fashion.
 The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node,
and all other nodes are the descendants of the root node.
 There is only one path exists between two nodes for the
data transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy

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 Networks
Hybrid Topology
 Example: Main star topology with each branch
connecting several stations in a bus topology
 To share the advantages from various topologies

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 Networks devices
 Network Devices: -also known as
networking hardware, are physical devices
that allow hardware on a computer network
to communicate and interact with one
another.
 For example Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch,
Routers, Gateway, Brouter, and NIC, etc.
 Classify Connecting devices into five
different categories based on the layer in
which they operate in a network.

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 Networks devices
Repeater: is a device that operates only at the
physical layer.
 A repeater can be used to increase the length of the
network by eliminating the effect of attenuation on
the signal.
 It connects two segments of the same network,
overcoming the distance limitations of the
transmission media.
 A repeater forwards every frame; it has no filtering
capability.
 A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier.
 Repeaters can connect segments that have the same
access method.(CSMA/CD, Token Passing, Polling, etc.)
 It is a 2-port device.

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 Repeater

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 Hub
A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub
connects multiple wires coming from different
branches.
A hub is used as a central point of connection among
media segments.
• Cables from network devices plug in to the ports on the
hub.
• Types of HUBS :
– A passive hub is just a connector. It connects the wires
coming from different branches.
– The signal pass through a passive hub without
regeneration
or amplification.
– Connect several networking cables together
– Active hubs or Multiport repeaters- They regenerate
or amplify the signal before they are retransmitted
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 Bridges
Operates in both the physical and the data link
layer.
• As a physical layer device, it regenerates the signal
it receives.
• As a data link layer device, the bridge can check
the physical/MAC addresses (source and destination)
contained in the frame.
• A bridge has a table used in filtering decisions.
• It can check the destination address of a frame and
decide if the frame should be forwarded or dropped.
• If the frame is to be forwarded, the decision must
specify the port.
• A bridge has a table that maps address to ports.

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 Bridges

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 How Bridges Work
Bridges work at the Media Access Control Sub-
layer of the OSI model.
• Routing table is built to record the segment
no. of address.
• If destination address is in the same segment
as the source address, stop transmit.
• Otherwise, forward to the other segment

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 How Bridges Work

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 Characteristics of Bridges
Routing Tables
– Contains one entry per station of network to which
bridge is connected.
– Is used to determine the network of destination station
of a received packet.
• Filtering
– Is used by bridge to allow only those packets destined to
the remote network.
– Packets are filtered with respect to their destination and
multicast addresses.
• Forwarding
– the process of passing a packet from one network to
another.
• Learning Algorithm
– the process by which the bridge learns how to reach
stations on the internetwork.

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 Types of Bridges

• Transparent Bridge
– Also called learning bridges
– Build a table of MAC addresses as frames arrive
– Ethernet networks use transparent bridge
– Duties of transparent bridge are :- Filtering
frames, forwarding and blocking
• Source Routing Bridge
– Used in Token Ring networks
– Each station should determine the route to the
destination when it wants to send a frame and
therefore include the route information in the
header of frame.
– Addresses of these bridges are included in the
frame.
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– Frame contains not only the source and
 Advantages and Disadvantages Of
Bridges
• Advantages of using a bridge
– Extend physical network
– Reduce network traffic with minor
segmentation
– Creates separate collision domains
– Reduce collisions
– Connect different architecture
• Disadvantages of using bridges
– Slower that repeaters due to filtering
– Do not filter broadcasts
– More expensive than repeaters
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 Conn’t

Two and Three layer switches

• Two layer switch operate at PHY and
data link layer
• Three layer switch operates at network
layer
• Bridge is an example of two-layer
switch.
• Bridge with few port can connect a few
LANs
• Bridge with many port may be able to
allocate a unique port to each station,
with each station on its own
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 Conn’t

3-layer switches
• E.g. router.
• Routes packets based on their logical
addresses
(host-to-host addressing)
• A router normally connects LANs and
WANs in the Internet and has a routing
table that is used for making decision
about the route.
• The routing tables are normally dynamic
and are updated using routing protocols.
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 Router

Advantages and Disadvantages of Routers

• Advantages
– Routers
 provide sophisticated routing, flow control, and traffic
isolation
 are configurable, which allows network manager to
make policy based on routing decisions
 allow active loops so that redundant paths are available
• Disadvantages
– Routers
– are protocol-dependent devices that must understand
the protocol they are forwarding.
– can require a considerable amount of
initial configuration.
– are relatively complex devices, and generally are more
expensive than bridges.
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 Routers versus Bridges
Addressing
– Routers are explicitly addressed.
– Bridges are not addressed.
• Availability
– Routers can handle failures in links, stations, and other
routers.
– Bridges use only source and destination MAC address, which
does not guarantee delivery of frames.
 Message Size
» Routers can perform fragmentation on packets and thus
handle different packet sizes.
» Bridges cannot do fragmentation and should not forward a
frame which is too big for the next LAN.
 Forwarding
» Routers forward a message to a specific destination.
» Bridges forward a message to an outgoing network.
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 Conn’t…

Priority
» Routers can treat packets according to priorities
» Bridges treat all packets equally.
 Error Rate
» Network layers have error-checking algorithms that examines
each received packet.
» The MAC layer provides a very low undetected bit error rate.
 Security
» Both bridges and routers provide the ability to put “security
walls” around specific stations.
» Routers generally provide greater security than bridges because
– they can be addressed directly and
– they use additional data for implementing security

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 Brouter

Brouters:
. Bridging Routers
 Combine features of bridges and
routers.
 Capable of establishing a bridge
between two
networks as well as routing some
messages from the
bridge networks to other networks.
 Are sometimes called (Layer 2/3)
switches and are a
combination of bridge/router hardware
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 Gateway

Interchangeably used term router and gateway

• Connect
. two networks above the network layer
of OSI model.
• Are capable of converting data frames and
network protocols into the format needed by
another network.
• Provide for translation services between
different computer protocols.
• Transport gateways make a connection
between two networks at the transport layer.
• Application gateways connect two parts of an
application in the application layer, e.g.,
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sending email between two machines using
 NIC

NIC or network interface card is a network

adapter
. that is used to connect the computer
to the network.
It is installed in the computer to establish a
LAN.
It has a unique id that is written on the chip,
and it has a connector to connect the cable to
it.
The cable acts as an interface between the
computer and the router or modem.
NIC card is a layer 2 device which means that
it works on both the physical and data link
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layers of the network model.
 Connection-oriented and
Connection-less Services
Both
Connection-oriented service and Connection-l
ess service
are used for the connection establishment
between two or more two devices. These
types of services are offered by the network
layer.

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 Connection-oriented and
Connection-less Services
Connection-oriented service is related to the
telephone system.
 It includes connection establishment and
connection termination.
In a connection-oriented service, the Handshake
method is used to establish the connection
between sender and receiver.

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 Connection-oriented and
Connection-less Services
Connection-less service is related to the
postal system. It does not include any connection
establishment and connection termination.
Connection-less Service does not give a
guarantee of reliability. In this, Packets do not
follow the same path to reach their destination.

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 Connection-oriented and
Connection-less Services

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 Connection-oriented and
Connection-less Services

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