Types of Spatial
Data and Levels of
their Measurement
Data
• Data is a collection of observations or measurements that are used
to analyze and make decisions.
• Data can be numerical or categorical and can be organized in charts,
tables or graphs.
• Data can be defined as a systematic record of a particular quantity.
It is the different values of that quantity represented together in a set.
• It is a collection of facts and figures to be used for a specific purpose
such as a survey or analysis.
• When arranged in an organized form, can be called information. The
source of data ( primary data, secondary data) is also an important
factor.
What is data used for?
•Data is used to analyze a phenomenon or population
•Data is used to make predictions about a phenomenon or
population
•Data is used to solve problems
•Data is used to make assumptions about specific things
Types of Data
Spatial Data:
Spatial data, also called geospatial data, refers to information tied to a
specific location or geographic area. It describes the position, size, shape,
and relationships of features or phenomena on the Earth's surface. This
type of data is typically represented using coordinates, such as latitude and
longitude, and is a key component of geographic information systems (GIS).
Examples of Spatial Data:
[Link] of Cities: Coordinates of New Delhi (28.6139° N, 77.2090° E).
[Link] Cover Maps: Representing forests, water bodies, and urban areas.
[Link] Networks: Highways, streets, and railways shown as lines on a map.
[Link] Features: Rivers, mountains, and coastlines.
[Link] Zones: Mapping regions with similar climate conditions
Non-Spatial Data:
Non-spatial data is information that does not have a geographic or locational
component.
It provides descriptive or statistical details about an object, phenomenon, or
feature but lacks spatial coordinates.
Non-spatial data is often used alongside spatial data to give deeper meaning to
geographic studies.
Examples of Non-Spatial Data:
[Link] of a City: New Delhi has a population of ~20 million.
[Link] Rainfall: The average rainfall in Mumbai is ~2,200 mm.
[Link] Rate: The literacy rate in Kerala is 96.2%.
[Link] Data: GDP, employment rates, or household incomes.
[Link] Data: The average temperature of Shimla in January is 6°C.
Types of Spatial Data
Spatial data is geographical representation of features. In other words, spatial
data is what we actually see in the form of maps (containing real-world features)
on a computer screen.
(a)Spatial data can be classified as:
• Place data: When we talk about one particular place with reference to different
aspects. Example: total rainfall of Chandigarh, total population of Chandigarh
etc.
• Space data: When place is not same but differs and the variety of data is fixed.
Example: rainfall at Chandigarh, rainfall at Hisar, rainfall at Jalandhar etc.
Spatial data can further be divided into two types
Vector data: Vector data represents any geographical feature through
point, line or polygon or combination of these.
Raster data: Raster data is made up of pixels. It is an array of grid cells
with columns and rows.
• Each and every geographical feature is represented only through pixels
in raster data. There is nothing like point, line or polygon.
• If it is a point, in raster data it will be a single pixel, a line will be
represented as linear arrangement of pixels and an area or polygon will
be represented by contiguous neighboring pixels with similar values.
Spatial Data can also be divided into:
Discrete data: Some segment distributions are discrete. They are composed of
individual items at particular locations.
Examples: No. of Students in a class, no. of workers in a company etc.
Continuous data: The data that is continuous (without breaks) in a selected
range is known as Continuous Data.
Example: Temperature values on earth’s surface, The height of children, speed of
car etc.
Stanley Smith Stevens
(November 4, 1906 – January 18, 1973)
was an American psychologist
Measurement in Spatial Data
• Spatial data can be measured using different scales depending on the
type of analysis required.
• These scales include nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio
measurements.
• The "levels of measurement", or scales of measure are expressions
that typically refer to the theory of scale types developed by the
psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens.
• Stevens proposed his theory in a 1946 Science article titled "On the
theory of scales of measurement".
• In that article, Stevens claimed that all measurement in science was
conducted using four different types of scales that he called
"nominal", "ordinal", "interval" and "ratio".
Nominal scale
•Nominal scale deals with the non-numeric data that is with the
categorical data
•It is a system of assigning number to the variable to label them only for
identification and to distinguish them from each other. Example: Car-1,
Buses-2
•It is a measure that simply divides objects or events into categories
•It is considered as the weakest tool of the measurement.
•It shows the quality of data.
•Here, categories are designated with names or numerals but ordering of
categories is meaningless i.e. there is no order
•Examples: Gender, race, color preference, etc.
•Researchers may add the number or represent by number male=1 and
female =2 but that number has no numerical value. These are nominal
because they are numerical in name only
•The only mathematical operation that can be performed is count or say
frequency.
Ordinal Scale
•It is system that ranks the value or data in order
•Here a variable is categorized in different subgroups in
ascending or descending order. However, the interval
between the successive categories are unequal.
•A measure that divides objects or events into categories and
arrange them in order of magnitude to provide ordered
categories with unequal interval size.
•Used to interpret the relative positions.
•Example of the ordinal variable is the rating scale, Likert
scale etc.
•It has unequal units
•It displays from highest to lowest by different measurement
points
•It has no zero point i.e. it is arbitrary or absolute
Interval Scale
•Interval scale is a system of assigning number to the variable to label
them for identification and ranking based on a scale having equal
interval size with arbitrary zero.
•Here, zero is arbitrary that allows measurement on either side of zero.
•Here, a variable is categorized in different subgroups in ascending or
descending order and intervals between the successive categories are
equal and constant.
•We can know bigger value and also how much bigger they are.
•Zero is not the lowest value there are point on scale which are below
than it
•Examples include Celsius, Fahrenheit Temperature, IQ (intelligence
scale).
•Here, 0 degree Celsius does not mean no temperature or no heat
•Likewise, 0 IQ does not mean no IQ
•Likewise, 64 degrees Fahrenheit is 32 units more than 32 degrees
Fahrenheit but not twice as warm as 32 degrees Fahrenheit
•IQ 100 is 50 times more than IQ 50 but individual with IQ 100 is not
two times intelligent than individual with IQ 50.
Ratio scale
•Ratio scale is a system of assigning number to the variable to
label them for identification and ranking based on a scale having
equal interval size with absolute zero that allows measurement
on only one side of zero.
•It is a top level of the measurement
•Here, a variable is categorized in different subgroups in
ascending or descending order and intervals between the
successive categories are equal and constant.
•Same as the interval scale except zero has the true value i.e.
zero represent the absolute value
•All the mathematical operations are applicable in this scale.
•Examples include: weight, height, ruler measurements,
number of children.
•Here, weight 0 means no weight and weight 60 kgs mean it is
30 units more than 30 kgs and two times of 30 kgs.
Furthermore, the comparison can also be seen in
following
Scales of
aspects:
Arithmetic aspects
Features/characteristics Examples
Measurement that can be performed
· Counting · Unordered Religion, sex etc.
Nominal scale · Can say one is different from other
· Counting · Ordered category with unequal and Economic status
Ordinal scale · Ranking unknown interval size academic performance etc.
· Ordered category with equal and known
· Counting interval size and arbitrary zero
· Ranking · Can say one is different from the other
Interval scale · Measurement · Can say one is greater or smaller than the Temperature, IQ score etc.
· Addition other
· Subtraction · Can say one is ‘X’ units greater or smaller
than the other
· Ordered category with equal and known
· Counting interval size and absolute zero
· Ranking · Can say one is different from the other
· Measurement · Can say one is greater or smaller than the
· Addition other Body weight, height etc.
Ratio Scale · Can say one is ‘X’ units greater or smaller
· Subtraction
· Multiplication than the other
· Division · Can say one is ‘X’ times greater or smaller
than the other