Sampling Distributions : Sampling Distributions
Concepts
Covered
Basic concept of sampling distribution
Usage of sampling distributions
Central limit theorem
Application of Central limit theorem
Introduction
As a task of statistical inference, we usually follow the following steps:
Introduction
As a task of statistical inference, we usually follow the following steps:
Data collection Collect a sample from the population.
Introduction
As a task of statistical inference, we usually follow the following steps:
Data collection Collect a sample from the population.
Statistics Compute a statistics from the sample.
Introduction
As a task of statistical inference, we usually follow the following steps:
Data collection Collect a sample from the population.
Statistics Compute a statistics from the sample.
From the statistics we make various statements concerning the
Statistical values of population parameters.
inference
For example, population mean from the sample mean, etc.
Basic Terminologies
Some basic terminology which are closely associated to the above-mentioned tasks
are reproduced below.
Basic Terminologies
Some basic terminology which are closely associated to the above-mentioned tasks
are reproduced below.
A population consists of the totality of the observation,
Population with which we are concerned.
Basic Terminologies
Some basic terminology which are closely associated to the above-mentioned tasks
are reproduced below.
A population consists of the totality of the observation, with which we are
Population concerned.
Sample A sample is a subset of a population.
Basic Terminologies
Some basic terminology which are closely associated to the above-mentioned tasks
are reproduced below.
A population consists of the totality of the observation, with which we are
Population concerned.
Sample A sample is a subset of a population.
Statistical It is an analysis basically concerned with generalization
inference and prediction.
Statistical Inference
There are two facts, which are key to statistical inference
Statistical Inference
There are two facts, which are key to statistical inference
1. Population parameters are fixed number whose values are usually unknown.
Statistical Inference
There are two facts, which are key to statistical inference
1. Population parameters are fixed number whose values are usually unknown.
2. Sample statistics are known values for any given sample, but vary from sample to
sample, even taken from the same population.
Statistical Inference
There are two facts, which are key to statistical inference
1. Population parameters are fixed number whose values are usually unknown.
2. Sample statistics are known values for any given sample, but vary from sample to sample, even taken
from the same population.
It is unlikely for any two samples drawn independently, producing identical values of
sample statistics.
Statistical Inference
There are two facts, which are key to statistical inference
1. Population parameters are fixed number whose values are usually unknown.
2. Sample statistics are known values for any given sample, but vary from sample to sample, even taken
from the same population.
It is unlikely for any two samples drawn independently, producing identical values of sample statistics.
The variability of sample statistics is always present and must be accounted for in any
inferential procedure
Statistical Inference
There are two facts, which are key to statistical inference
1. Population parameters are fixed number whose values are usually unknown.
2. Sample statistics are known values for any given sample, but vary from sample to sample, even taken
from the same population.
It is unlikely for any two samples drawn independently, producing identical values of sample statistics.
The variability of sample statistics is always present and must be accounted for in any inferential procedure
This variability is called sampling variation.
Statistical Inference
There are two facts, which are key to statistical inference
1. Population parameters are fixed number whose values are usually unknown.
2. Sample statistics are known values for any given sample, but vary from sample to sample, even taken
from the same population.
It is unlikely for any two samples drawn independently, producing identical values of sample statistics.
The variability of sample statistics is always present and must be accounted for in any inferential procedure
This variability is called sampling variation.
Note:
A sample statistics is random variable and like any other random variable, a sample
statistics has a probability distribution.
Sampling Distributions
A sample statistics is random variable and like any other random variable, a sample
statistics has a probability distribution. The distribution is used to describe the
variability of sample statistics.
Sampling Distributions
A sample statistics is random variable and like any other random variable, a sample statistics has a
probability distribution. The distribution is used to describe the variability of sample statistics.
Definition: Sampling Distribution
The sampling distribution of a statistics is the probability distribution of that statistics.
Sampling Distributions
A sample statistics is random variable and like any other random variable, a sample statistics has a
probability distribution. The distribution is used to describe the variability of sample statistics.
Definition: Sampling Distribution
The sampling distribution of a statistics is the probability distribution of that statistics.
The probability distribution of sample mean (hereafter, will be denoted as 𝑋ത
is called the sampling distribution of the mean (also, referred to as the distribution
of sample mean).
Sampling Distributions
A sample statistics is random variable and like any other random variable, a sample statistics has a
probability distribution. The distribution is used to describe the variability of sample statistics.
Definition: Sampling Distribution
The sampling distribution of a statistics is the probability distribution of that statistics.
The probability distribution of sample mean (hereafter, will be denoted as 𝑋ത is called the
sampling distribution of the mean (also, referred to as the distribution of sample mean).
Like 𝑋ത , we call sampling distribution of variance (denoted as 𝑆2 )
Sampling Distributions
A sample statistics is random variable and like any other random variable, a sample statistics has a
probability distribution. The distribution is used to describe the variability of sample statistics.
Definition: Sampling Distribution
The sampling distribution of a statistics is the probability distribution of that statistics.
The probability distribution of sample mean (hereafter, will be denoted as 𝑋ത is called the
sampling distribution of the mean (also, referred to as the distribution of sample mean).
Like 𝑋ത , we call sampling distribution of variance (denoted as 𝑆2)
Using the values of 𝑋ത and 𝑆2 for different random samples of a population, we
are to make inference on the parameters 𝜇 and 𝜎2(of the population).
Issues with Sampling distribution
In practical situation, for a large population, it is infeasible to have all
possible samples and hence probability distribution of sample statistics.
Issues with Sampling distribution
In practical situation, for a large population, it is infeasible to have all
possible samples and hence probability distribution of sample statistics.
The sampling distribution of a statistics depends on
Issues with Sampling distribution
In practical situation, for a large population, it is infeasible to have all
possible samples and hence probability distribution of sample statistics.
The sampling distribution of a statistics depends on
the type of the population
Issues with Sampling distribution
In practical situation, for a large population, it is infeasible to have all
possible samples and hence probability distribution of sample statistics.
The sampling distribution of a statistics depends on
the type of the population
the size of the samples, and
Issues with Sampling distribution
In practical situation, for a large population, it is infeasible to have all
possible samples and hence probability distribution of sample statistics.
The sampling distribution of a statistics depends on
the type of the population
the size of the samples, and
the method of
choosing the samples.
Sampling Distribution−Example 1
Problem
Consider five identical disks numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Consider an experiment consisting of drawing
two disks, replacing the first before drawing the second, and then computing the mean of the values of the
two disks.
Sampling Distribution−Example 1
Consider five identical disks numbered as 1,
Solution 2, 3, 4 and 5. Consider an experiment
consisting of drawing two disks, replacing
the first before drawing the second, and
Following table lists all possible samples and their means then computing the mean of the values of
Mean(𝑿ഥ) Mean(𝑿ഥ) Mean(𝑿ഥ)
the two disks.
Sample(X) Sample(X) Sample(X)
[1,1] 1.0 [2,5] 3.5 [4,4] 4.0
[1,2] 1.5 [3,1] 2.0 [4,5] 4.5
[1,3] 2.0 [3,2] 2.5 [5,1] 3.0
[1,4] 2.5 [3,3] 3.0 [5,2] 3.5
[1,5] 3.0 [3,4] 3.5 [5,3] 4.0
[2,1] 1.5 [3,5] 4.0 [5,4] 4.5
[2,2] 2.0 [4,1] 2.5 [5,5] 5.0
[2,3] 2.5 [4,2] 3.0
[2,4] 3.0 [4,3] 3.5
Sampling Distribution−Example 1 contd…
Consider five identical disks numbered as 1,
Solution 2, 3, 4 and 5. Consider an experiment
consisting of drawing two disks, replacing
the first before drawing the second, and
Sampling Distribution of means
𝐱ത
then computing the mean of the values of
the two disks.
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1
2 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
f(𝑥ҧ
5
)
1. 0 1.5 2. 0 2.5 3. 0 3. 5 4.0 4. 5 5. 0
Sampling Distribution−Example 1 contd…
Consider five identical disks numbered as 1,
Solution 2, 3, 4 and 5. Consider an experiment
consisting of drawing two disks, replacing
the first before drawing the second, and
Sampling Distribution of means then computing the mean of the values of
the two disks.
The closely
resembles a normal
distribution than a
uniform distribution.
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Sampling Distribution−Example 1 contd…
Consider five identical disks numbered as 1,
Solution 2, 3, 4 and 5. Consider an experiment
consisting of drawing two disks, replacing
the first before drawing the second, and
Sampling Distribution of means then computing the mean of the values of
the two disks.
The closely
resembles a normal
distribution than a
uniform distribution.
𝑥ҧ
The mean of the
distribution of
values is 3 and the
variance is 1.
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Theorem on Sampling Distribution
Theorem: Sampling Distribution of Mean
The sampling distribution of 𝑋ത from a random sample of size 𝑛 drawn from 2a
population with mean 𝜇 and variance 𝜎 2 will have mean 𝑋ത = 𝜇 and variance 𝑆 2𝑛
=𝜎
Theorem on Sampling Distribution
Theorem: Sampling Distribution of Mean
The sampling distribution of 𝑋ത from a random sample of size 𝑛 drawn from a population with mean 𝜇
variance 𝜎 2 will have mean 𝑋ത = 𝜇 and variance 𝑆 2𝑛2
and
= 𝜎
With reference to data in Example 1 (considering Uniform distribution)
Theorem on Sampling Distribution
Theorem: Sampling Distribution of Mean
The sampling distribution of 𝑋ത from a random sample of size 𝑛 drawn from a population with mean 𝜇
variance 𝜎 2 will have mean 𝑋ത = 𝜇 and variance 𝑆 2𝑛2
and
= 𝜎 reference to data in Example 1 (considering Uniform distribution)
With
For the population, 𝜇 =
5+
1
= 2 3
Theorem on Sampling Distribution
Theorem: Sampling Distribution of Mean
The sampling distribution of 𝑋ത from a random sample of size 𝑛 drawn from a population with mean 𝜇
variance 𝜎 2 will have mean 𝑋ത = 𝜇 and variance 𝑆 2𝑛2
and
= 𝜎 reference to data in Example 1 (considering Uniform distribution)
With
For the population, 𝜇 = 5+1
2
=
3
25−1
𝜎2 = = 2
12
Applying the theorem, we have 𝑋ത=3 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑆2=1
Hence, the theorem is verified!
Central Limit Theorem
The Theorem on sampling distribution is also true if we sample from a population
with unknown distribution, the sampling distribution of 𝑋ത will be
𝑛
normal with mean μ and variance
approximately
𝜎2
Central Limit Theorem
The Theorem on sampling distribution is also true if we sample from a population with unknown
2
distribution, the sampling distribution of 𝑋ത will be approximately normal with mean μ and 𝑛
variance 𝜎
This further, can also be established with the famous “central limit theorem”,
which is stated below.
Central Limit Theorem
The Theorem on sampling distribution is also true if we sample from a population with unknown
2
distribution, the sampling distribution of 𝑋ത will be approximately normal with mean μ and 𝑛
variance 𝜎
This further, can also be established with the famous “central limit theorem”, which is stated below.
Theorem: Central Limit Theorem
If random samples each of size 𝑛 are taken from any distribution with mean 𝜇 and
variance 𝜎 2 , the sample mean 𝑋ത will have a distribution approximately
with mean 𝜇 and
normal 𝑛
𝜎 2
variance
Central Limit Theorem
The Theorem on sampling distribution is also true if we sample from a population with unknown
2
distribution, the sampling distribution of 𝑋ത will be approximately normal with mean μ and 𝑛
variance 𝜎
This further, can also be established with the famous “central limit theorem”, which is stated below.
Theorem: Central Limit Theorem
If random samples each of size 𝑛 are taken from any distribution with mean 𝜇 and variance 𝜎 2 , the
2
sample mean 𝑋ത will have a distribution approximately normal with mean 𝜇 and variance𝑛
The approximation becomes better as 𝒏
𝜎
increases.
Applicability of Central Limit Theorem
The theorem is an asymptotic result (being exactly true only if n goes to infinity),
1 however the approximation is usually very good for quite moderate values of n.
Sample sizes required for the approximation to be useful depend on the nature
2 of the distribution of the population.
For populations that resemble the normal, sample sizes of 10 or more are
3 usually sufficient
Sample sizes in excess of 30 are adequate for virtually all populations, unless
4 the distribution is extremely skewed
If the population is normally distributed, the sampling distribution of the mean
5 is exactly normally distributed regardless of sample size
determination of reasonable values of the population mean 𝜇
Finally, one very important application of the Central Limit Theorem is the
6
REFERENCES
Probability and Statistics for Statistics, Witte, R.S., Witte, J.S., Probability and Statistics, 2nd Freund, R.J. & Wilson, W.J.
Engineers and Scientists (8th Ed.) 2013.. Wiley edition, Moris DeGroot, 1986. Statistical Methods, Academic
by Ronald E. Walpole, Sharon L. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Myers, Keying Ye (Pearson), 2013.
Press, San Diego, 1997
Sampling Distributions
Concepts
Covered
Basic concept of sampling distribution
Usage of sampling distributions
Central limit theorem
Application of Central limit theorem
Applicability of Central Limit Theorem
The theorem is an asymptotic result (being exactly true only if n goes to infinity),
1 however the approximation is usually very good for quite moderate values of n.
Sample sizes required for the approximation to be useful depend on the nature
2 of the distribution of the population.
For populations that resemble the normal, sample sizes of 10 or more are
3 usually sufficient
Sample sizes in excess of 30 are adequate for virtually all populations, unless
4 the distribution is extremely skewed
If the population is normally distributed, the sampling distribution of the mean
5 is exactly normally distributed regardless of sample size
determination of reasonable values of the population mean 𝜇
Finally, one very important application of the Central Limit Theorem is the
6
Usefulness of the Sampling Distribution
The mean of the sampling distribution of the mean is the population mean.
This implies that “on the average” the sample mean is the same as the population mean.
Usefulness of the Sampling Distribution
The mean of the sampling distribution of the mean is the population mean.
This implies that “on the average” the sample mean is the same as the population mean.
We therefore say that the sample mean is an unbiased estimate of the population mean.
Usefulness of the Sampling Distribution
The mean of the sampling distribution of the mean is the population mean.
This implies that “on the average” the sample mean is the same as the population mean.
We therefore say that the sample mean is an unbiased estimate of the population mean.
𝜎2
𝑛
The variance of the distribution of the sample means is
ൗ 𝑛 ) of the mean,
The standard deviation of the sampling distribution (i.e., ��
often called the standard error of the mean.
Usefulness of the Sampling Distribution
The mean of the sampling distribution of the mean is the population mean.
This implies that “on the average” the sample mean is the same as the population mean.
We therefore say that the sample mean is an unbiased estimate of the population mean.
𝜎2
𝑛
The variance of the distribution of the sample means is
ൗ 𝑛 ) of the mean,
The standard deviation of the sampling distribution (i.e., ��
often called the standard error of the mean.
If σ is high then the sample mean are not reliable, however for a very large sample size
(𝑛→∞), standard error tends to zero
Example−2
Problem
An electrical firm
manufactures light bulbs
that have a length of life
that is approximately
normally distributed,
with mean equal to 800
hours and a standard
deviation of 40 hours.
Find the probability that
a random sample of 16
bulbs will have an
average life of less than
775 hours.
Example−2
Problem Solution
Here, a sample of 16 bulbs is drawn from the population.
𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
An electrical
= 800 ℎ𝑟𝑠
firm manufactures
light bulbs that
have a length of
life that is
approximately
normally distributed,
with mean equal to
800 hours and
a standard
deviation of 40
hours. Find the
probability that a
random sample of
16 bulbs will have an
average life of
less than 775 hours.
Example−2
Problem Solution
Here, a sample of 16 bulbs is drawn from the population.
𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 800 ℎ𝑟𝑠
An electrical
firm manufactures
light bulbs that
have a length of
𝑆.𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑆. 𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 =
life that is
𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
approximately
normally distributed,
𝜎
=
with mean equal to
800 hours and
a standard 𝑛
40
=
deviation of 40
hours. Find the
16
= 10
probability that a
random sample of
16 bulbs will have an
average life of
less than 775 hours.
Example−2
Problem Solution
Here, a sample of 16 bulbs is drawn from the population.
𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 800 ℎ𝑟𝑠
An electrical
firm manufactures
light bulbs that
𝑆.𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
have a length of 𝑆. 𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 =
life that is 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝜎
=
approximately
𝑛
normally distributed,
with mean equal to
40
800 hours and =
a standard 16
deviation of 40 = 10
hours. Find the
P(average life of given sample< 𝟕𝟕𝟓 )
probability that a
= 𝑃 𝑥ҧ < 775
random sample of
16 bulbs will have an
= 𝑃 𝑧 < −2.5
average life of
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟐
less than 775 hours.
Sampling Distribution
Theorem: Sampling Distribution of the Difference Between Two Means
If independent samples of size 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 are drawn at random from two populations,
discrete or continuous, with means 𝜇1 and 𝜇2 and variances 𝜎 2 and 𝜎2 , 1
respectively, then the sampling distribution of the differences of means, 𝑋12 − 𝑋2,
is approximately normally distributed with mean and variance given by
= 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 𝜎2
=𝜎
𝜇𝑋1ത 𝜎2𝑋1ത 𝑛 12 +
1
2 2 2
−𝑋ത −𝑋ത 𝑛2
and
Sampling Distribution
Theorem: Sampling Distribution of the Difference Between Two Means
If independent samples of size 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 are drawn at random from two populations, discrete or
continuous, with means 𝜇1 and 𝜇2 and variances 𝜎 1
2 and 𝜎 2 , respectively, then the sampling distribution
2
the differences of means, 𝑋1 − 𝑋2, is approximately normally distributed with mean and variance given
of
𝜇𝑋ത1−𝑋ത2 = 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 𝜎2𝑋ത −𝑋 = 𝜎 +
by 𝜎2
1
2
2
1 𝑛1 𝑛2
and ത 2
Hence,
𝑋᪄1−𝑋᪄2 −
𝑍 =
𝜇 1 −𝜇 2
𝜎 2 /𝑛 1 +
𝜎 2 /𝑛 2
1
2
Sampling Distribution
Theorem: Sampling Distribution of the Difference Between Two Means
If independent samples of size 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 are drawn at random from two populations, discrete or
continuous, with means 𝜇1 and 𝜇2 and variances 𝜎 1
2 and 𝜎 2 , respectively, then the sampling distribution
2
the differences of means, 𝑋1 − 𝑋2, is approximately normally distributed with mean and variance given
of
𝜇𝑋ത1−𝑋ത2 = 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 𝜎2𝑋ത −𝑋 = 𝜎 +
by 𝜎2
1
2
2
1 𝑛1 𝑛2
and ത 2
𝑋᪄1−𝑋᪄2 − 𝜇 1 −𝜇 2
𝑍 =
Hence,
𝜎 2 /𝑛 1 + 𝜎 2 /𝑛 2
1
2
𝒁 is approximately a standard normal
variable.
Sampling Distribution contd…
Theorem: Sampling Distribution of the Difference Between Two Means (contd…)
Reproductive property of normal distribution: If 𝑋1, 𝑋2, … … , 𝑋𝑛 are
independent random variables, having normal distribution with mean μ1, μ2, … … ,
𝜎1𝑛2 ,and
𝜎
2
2,……, 𝜎 2 then =𝑎 𝑋 +𝑎 𝑋
+……+𝑎 with 𝑋
μ variance
𝑛 1 1 2 2 𝑛 𝑛
the random variable𝑋
distribution has normal
mean, 𝜇𝑋ത = 𝑎1𝜇1 + 𝑎2𝜇2 + ……
+ 𝑎𝑛 𝜇𝑛 𝜎 2 = 𝑎 2 𝜎 2 + 𝑎 2 𝜎 2 +
…… + 𝑎 𝑛 2𝜎
variance,
𝑋 ത 1 1 2 2 𝑛2
Example−3
Problem
specimens are painted using type 𝐴, and the drying time, in hours, is recorded for each. The same is
Two independent experiments are run in which two different types of paint are compared. Eighteen
done with type 𝐵. The population standard deviations are both known to be 1.0.
Assuming that the mean drying time is equal for the two types of paint, find 𝑃(𝑋ത𝐴 −𝑋ത𝐵 > 1.0),
𝑋ത𝐴 and 𝑋ത𝐵 are average drying times for samples of size 18.
where
Example−3
Two independent experiments are run in which
Solution
Eighteen specimens are painted using type 𝐴,
From the sampling distribution of 𝑋𝐴 − 𝑋𝐵, we know that the
two different types of paint are compared.
each. The same is done with type 𝐵. The
and the drying time, in hours, is recorded for
𝜇𝑋 𝐴 −𝑋 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐴 − 𝜇𝐵 = 0
distribution is approximately normal with mean
population standard deviations are both
and variance known to be 1.0.
Assuming that the mean drying time is equal
𝜎𝑋2 −𝑋 = + = + =
2 𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝐵 1 21 1 for the two types of paint, find 𝑃(𝑋ത𝐴 −𝑋ത𝐵
𝐴 𝐵 𝑛𝐴 𝑛𝐵 18 18 9 > 1.0), where 𝑋ത𝐴 and 𝑋ത𝐵 are
average drying times for samples of size 18.
Example−3
Two independent experiments are run in which
Solution
Eighteen specimens are painted using type 𝐴,
two different types of paint are compared.
From the sampling distribution of 𝑋𝐴 − 𝑋𝐵, we know that the
each. The same is done with type 𝐵. The
and the drying time, in hours, is recorded for
𝜇 𝑋 𝐴 −𝑋 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐴 − 𝜇𝐵 = 0
distribution is approximately normal with mean
and variance population standard deviations are both
𝜎2 = + = +𝐵1 =
known to be 1.0.
𝜎2 𝜎2 1 1
Assuming that the mean drying time is equal
𝐴
for the two types of paint, find 𝑃(𝑋ത𝐴 −𝑋ത
ത 𝐴 and ത 𝑋𝐵 are average
𝑋 𝐴 −𝑋 𝐵 𝑛𝐴 𝑛𝐵 18 18 9
1.0), where 𝑋 𝐵
>
Corresponding to the value 𝑋᪄𝐴 − 𝑋᪄𝐵
drying times for samples of size 18.
= 1.0, we have
1− 𝜇 𝐴 −𝜇 𝐵 1−0
𝑧 = =
= 3.0
1/9
1/9
𝑃 𝑍 > 3.0 =1−
𝑃 𝑍 < 3.0
= 1 − 0.9987
CONCLUSIO
N
In this lecture we learned the basics of sampling distribution.
Next, we learned three very important theorems of statistics:
Theorem on sampling distribution
Central limit theorem
Sampling distribution of the
difference between two means
Learners are instructed to understand these theorems theoretically
and also via practice problems.
In the next lecture, we will look into more concepts of Sampling
distribution.
REFERENC
ES
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