Day, Date PSYCH 2A

CHAPTER II
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCH
REPORTING
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I Independent Variables

II Dependent Variables

III Operational Definbition

IV Control Variables

V Name the Variables

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VI More than One Independent Variable

VIII More than One Dependent Variable

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• Independent variable - the variable

that is being directly manipulated by
the experimenter.

• Levels of the Independent Variable - the researcher varies

the levels of the IV by creating different treatment
conditions within the experiment.

• Failure of an independent variable to

control behavior, often called null results
can have more than one interpretation.

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• For example: Suppose we want to investigate

the effects of caffeine on cognitive performance.
• Independent Variable (IV) : Caffeine
consumption

Levels of the IV:

Level 1: No caffeine Level 2: Low caffeine Level 3: High
Caffeine
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The Dependent variable is the response measure of an

experiment.
Stability is when the experiment is repeated again and again,
it yields the same results.

Instability can occur because of the deficit in the way we measure

some dependent variables.

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example:
Experiment Dependent Variable:
Height of the plants (measured in
Testing the effect of a new fertilizer on
centimeters).
plant growth.

Scenario:
The plants are grown under controlled conditions, with the same amount of water, sunlight,
and soil type. The fertilizer is applied to half of the plants, while the other half serves as a
control group. The height of the plants is measured weekly.

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Null results, caused by inadequacies in the dependent variable

even if it is stable.

The floor effect is when the participants of the study with nearly
most of them having 0 to low scores, indicating that the tests are
too difficult.

Whereas the ceiling effect, is when the participants score too high
on a test, this occurs when the tests are too easy.

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ACTIVITY

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1. Ivan Pavlov studied how dogs associated

a neutral stimulus (a bell) with food. Over
time, the dogs began to salivate at the
sound of the bell alone, even without food.

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2. Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer showed participants

a video of a car accident and asked them to estimate
the speed of the cars. The wording of the question (e.g.,
"smashed" vs. "contacted") influenced participants'
speed estimates and their later recall of the event.

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3. Albert Bandura exposed children to an adult model

behaving aggressively toward a Bobo doll. Later, the
children were observed interacting with the doll, and
many imitated the aggressive behavior they had
witnessed.

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Operational Definition specifies the precise meaning of

the variable of an experiment.

Key words: Replication/Measurables

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CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION
• Is about what is being measured or what is being manipulated.

EXAMPLE OF CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION

Background Noise
-any type of noise that is not the sound that you are
specifically listening to or monitoring (Collins Online
Dictionary, n.d.)
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EXAMPLE OF CONCEPTUAL AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

Anxiety. The apprehensive anticipation of the future danger or

misfortune accompanied by a feeling of worry , distress , and/or
somatic symptoms (APA,2002). In this study, it involves two
conditions such as high anxiety condition and low anxiety condition.
High Anxiety Condition. It is defined by the electronic equipment set
up in the room, the ominous behavior of De. Zilstein, and the explicit
statement that the subjects should expect painful shocks.
Low Anxiety Condition. It is defined by the absence of equipment, Dr.
Zilstein's more relaxed manner, and the explicit statement that the
shocks would not be painful. 14
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EXPERIMENTAL OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

The explanation of the meaning of the independent variables; defines

exactly what was done to create the various treatment conditions of
the experiment.
MEASURED OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
The description of exactly how a variable in experiment is measured

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EXAMPLE OF MEASURED OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

Affiliation. It refers to the act of connecting associating with the

person or organization (Author’s surname ,year of publication). In the
study it is the mean score acquired from answering the Affiliative
tendency Scale by the Author's Surname (year of publication)

Anxiety. The apprehensive anticipation of the future danger or

misfortune accompanied by a feeling of worry distress and or somatic
symptoms (APA,2002). In this study, it is a measured as a heartbeat in
excess of 100 beats per minute following 5 minutes rest on a sofa.
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EXAMPLE OF MEASURED OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

Anxiety. The apprehensive anticipation of the future danger or

misfortune accompanied by a feeling of worry distress and or
somatic symptoms (APA,2002). In this study, it is the mean score
in the Beck Anxiety Inventory.

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Nonconstruct variables

Refers to a research variable that can be measured and observed

directly.

Example
Comparing crying among babies in light rooms versus crying in
dark rooms by Irwin and Weiss in 1934

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ACTIVITY

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IDENTIFY THE
INDEPENDENT 1. A study of the effects of color
VARIABLES , LEVELS on easing anxiety compared
OF INDEPENDENT anxiety test course of
VARIABLE AND participants who completed the
DEPENDENT
test printed on yellow paper,
VARIABLE
green paper, cerulean paper,
and white paper.

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2. A group of researchers conducted a

IDENTIFY THE
INDEPENDENT
study that will determine the effects of

VARIABLES , LEVELS background noise in class

OF INDEPENDENT performance. Students in one
VARIABLE AND classroom work on a mathematical
DEPENDENT
task with calming music in the
VARIABLE
background. Students in a second
classroom heard aggressive, exciting
music, and student in the last room
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had no music at all.
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3. A researcher investigated different

IDENTIFY THE
INDEPENDENT
combinations of temperatures and

VARIABLES , LEVELS humidity to examine how heat affects

OF INDEPENDENT math performance. The researcher
VARIABLE AND compared three temperature condition
DEPENDENT
(10°c , 30 °c , and 50 °c ) with the high
VARIABLE
humidity and allow humility condition
for each temperature.

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IDENTIFY THE 4. Suppose this is your hypothesis:

INDEPENDENT
People learn words faster when the
VARIABLES , LEVELS
words are written horizontally than
OF INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE AND
they are written vertically.

DEPENDENT
VARIABLE

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Control Variable
- a control variable is a variable that is held constant or
controlled during an experiment to prevent it from affecting
the outcome.

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Why Use Control Variables?

Control variables help researchers isolate the effect of the independent variable on
the dependent variable.

We want to study the Effect of Using Tablets (independent variable) on the

Academic Performance of Children (dependent variable).

In this example, the control variables (parents’ education level, study

time, health) help to separate the effect of the independent variable (use
of tablets) from the dependent variable (academic performance of
children).

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Example of a Control Variable

Investigating the Impact of Social
Media on Mental Health

• Independent Variable: Social media use (high, medium, or

low)
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NAME THE
VARIABLE!
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1. You are conducting an experiment to find out

how different amounts of light affect the growth
of tomato plants. You place one group of plants in
full sunlight, another group in partial sunlight,
and a third group in complete darkness.

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2. A teacher wants to see if the amount of time

spent studying influences students’ performance
on a math test. One group studies for one hour,
another for three hours, and a third group for five
hours.

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3. You are testing how the temperature affects

the speed of a chemical reaction in a lab. You
heat the reaction mixture at 20°C, 40°C, and
60°C, and measure how long it takes for the
reaction to complete.

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4. You want to see how different durations of

exercise affect heart rate. You have a group of
participants run for 5 minutes, 10 minutes, and
20 minutes while measuring their heart rates at
the end of each duration.

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5. A farmer is experimenting with three different

types of fertilizers to see which one helps his
crops grow best. He applies a different fertilizer
to three plots of land and compares the weight of
the crops at harvest.

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6. You want to see if listening to different types of

music affects a person’s ability to focus during a
task. One group of people works in silence,
another listens to classical music, and the last
group listens to pop music.

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7. A researcher want to test how caffeine affects

the reaction time of participants. One group
consumes 100 mg of caffeine, another consumes
200 mg, and a control group drinks a placebo.

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8. Jessie, want to examine whether a good

night’s sleep improves memory recall. One group
sleeps for 4 hours, another for 8 hours, and a
third group stays awake all night.

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9. Jose want to test how the temperature of

water affects how quickly sugar dissolves. You try
dissolving sugar in water at 20°C, 40°C, and
60°C, measuring the time it takes for the sugar
to dissolve completely.

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10. A group of researcher conducting a study to

determine whether a specific type of exercise
program helps with weight loss. One group does
cardio, another does strength training, and a
third does a mix of both, while measuring weight
loss over a month.

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More Than One Independent Variable

-It is unusual to find an experiment reported in a

psychological journal in which only one independent
(manipulated) variable is used; the typical experiment
manipulates from two to four independent variables
simultaneously.

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This procedure has several advantages.

• First, it is often more efficient to conduct one experiment with, say, three
independent variables than to conduct three separate experiments.
• Second, experimental control is often better, since with a single experiment,
some control variables—time of day, temperature, humidity, and so on—are more
likely to be held constant than with three separate experiments
• Third, and most important, is that results are generalized—that is, shown to be
valid in several situations—across several independent variables are more
valuable than data that have yet to be generalized.

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When the effects produced by one independent variable are

different at each level of a second independent variable, we
have an INTERACTION. The search for interactions is a major
reason for using more than one independent variable per
experiment.

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Example:
The study “When God Sanctions Killing” participants read a violent passage from either the Bible or an
ancient scroll. They then performed a task where they controlled loud noise levels, with higher intensities
indicating greater aggression.

The Two Independent Variables were:

· Source of the passage: Either the Bible or an ancient scroll
· Whether or not the subject believed in God

The Dependent Variable

· Number of times participants chose the highest noise level over 25 trials.

The results of this study indicate that reading a passage from the Bible led to higher levels of aggression
compared to reading a passage from an ancient scroll. When the passage was from an ancient scroll, both
believers and non-believers displayed similar levels of aggression. In contrast, when the passage came
from the Bible, believers demonstrated significantly higher aggression. This finding highlights an
interaction effect, meaning that the influence of belief in God on aggression is not consistent across all
conditions it depends on the source of the passage.
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More Than One Dependent Variable

The dependent variable is used as an index of behavior. It

indicates how well or poorly the subject is performing.

Researchers can usually come up with several dependent

variables that may be appropriate

The typical experiment uses only one, or at the most, two

dependent variables simultaneously.

Multivariate analysis is complex; nevertheless, you should be aware that it is often

advantageous to use more than one dependent variable in an experiment.

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ACTIVITY
Identify the IV and DV
Identify if it has more than 1 IV
Identify if it has more than 1 DV
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A microbiologist exposes bacterial cultures to different levels

of ultraviolet (UV) radiation to observe how it affects their
growth. She measures the survival rate of bacteria, the
mutation frequency in their DNA, and their metabolic activity
over a 24-hour period.
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IV: Level of UV radiation exposure

DVs: Bacterial survival rate, mutation frequency, metabolic activity
More than 1 DV
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An automotive engineer is testing how different car body

designs influence fuel efficiency. He runs tests using vehicles
with varying aerodynamics in a wind tunnel and records fuel
consumption per mile, drag force, and engine temperature
over a set distance.
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IV:Aerodynamic design of the car

DVs: Fuel consumption, drag force, engine temperature
More than 1 DV
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Influence of Leadership Style and Organizational

Culture on Employee Job Satisfaction in Multinational
Corporations. The Leadership styles that are to be
implemented are the following: autocratic
(authoritarian), democratic (participative), laissez-
faire (delegative), transactional, and
transformational
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Independent Variables: Leadership style, Organizational culture

Dependent Variable: Employee job satisfaction
More than 1 IV
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Marine biologists are studying how increasing ocean acidity

affects coral reef ecosystems. They simulate ocean conditions
with different pH levels and analyze the rate of coral
bleaching, calcium carbonate dissolution, and the biodiversity
of marine life around the coral.
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lIV:Ocean acidity (pH level)

DVs:Rate of coral bleaching, calcium carbonate dissolution,
biodiversity changes
More than 1 DV
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Role of Diet and Exercise in Managing Type

2 Diabetes: A Longitudinal Study.
Among various lifestyle modifications,
dietary adjustments and exercise hold
significant importance in the management
of type 2 diabetes
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Independent Variables: Diet, Exercise

Dependent Variable: Management of Type 2 diabetes
More than 1 IV
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Examining the significant relationship

between Urban Green Spaces, Air Quality,
and Mental Well-being in Metropolitan
Cities
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Independent Variables: Urban green spaces, Air quality

Dependent Variable: Mental well-being
More than 1 IV
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A team of quantum physicists is analyzing how

cooling temperature affects the stability of qubits
in a quantum computer. They operate qubits at
different cryogenic temperatures and measure
the coherence time of quantum states, error rates
in computations, and the overall stability of the
quantum system.
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IV:Operating temperature of quantum processor

DVs:Qubit coherence time, computational error rate, system
stability
More than 1 DV
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Participants are randomly assigned to one of four

conditions: (1) 4 hours of sleep + caffeinated
coffee, (2) 4 hours of sleep + decaffeinated
coffee, (3) 8 hours of sleep + caffeinated coffee,
or (4) 8 hours of sleep + decaffeinated coffee.
They complete cognitive tasks after the
manipulation.
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IV:Sleep duration (4 hours vs. 8 hours) Caffeine intake (caffeinated

vs. decaffeinated coffee).
DV: Cognitive performance
More than 1 IV
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A team of computer scientists is evaluating how

different AI model complexities affect processing
speed. They test neural networks with increasing
numbers of layers and measure the computation
time for predictions, energy consumption of the
system, and the accuracy of the model’s output.
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IV: Complexity of AI algorithm (number of layers)

DVs: Processing time, energy consumption, accuracy of predictions
More than 1 DV
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Environmental researchers simulate various

climate change scenarios to understand their
impact on crop production. They expose wheat
fields to different temperature and CO₂
concentration levels, then track changes in crop
yield, soil nutrient depletion, and plant disease
susceptibility.
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IV: Climate conditions (temperature and CO₂ levels)

Ds: Crop yield, soil nutrient levels, plant disease occurrence
More than 1 DV
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Thank You
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