VISUAL PATHWAYS , AUDITORY AND

OLFACTORY PATHWAYS.

A LECTURE PRESENTED BY

DR SAMUEL OKAFOR O

COURSE : GROSS ANATOMY

COURSE CODE : ANA 305

 OUTLINE
• INTRODUCTION

• THE RETINA
• THE VISUAL PATHWAY
• THE AUDITORY PATHWAY
• THE OLFACTORY PATHWAY
• CONCLUSION

2
 VISUAL PATHWAY
• Neural path and connections within the central nervous
system, beginning with the retina and terminating in the
visual cortex.

3
• VISUAL PATHWAY
comprises of:

Optic Nerve

Optic Chiasma

Optic Tract

Lateral Geniculate Body

• Optic Radiations

Visual cortex
4
 VISUAL PATHWAY
• The peripheral receptors for light are
situated in the retina.
• Nerve fibres arising in the retina constitute
the optic nerve.

• The right and left optic nerves join to form

the optic chiasma in which many of their
fibres cross to the opposite side.

• The uncrossed fibres of the optic nerve,

along with the fibres that have crossed
over from the opposite side form the optic
tract.
• The optic tract terminates predominantly
in the lateral geniculate body.

• Fresh fibres arising in this body form the

geniculo-calcarine tract or optic radiation
which ends in the visual areas of the
cerebral cortex. 5
 VISUAL PATHWAY CONTD
 Vision is produced by
photoreceptors in the retina.

 The information leaves the eye by

the optic nerve, and there is partly
crossing of axons at the optic
chiasma.

 Afterward the chiasm, the axons

are termed as the optic tract.

 The optic tract wraps about the

midbrain to acquire to the lateral
geniculate nucleus (LGN), where 6
 VISUAL PATHWAY CONTD
 From there, the LGN axons fan
out via the deep white matter of
the brain as the optic
radiations.

 These will ultimately travel to

primary visual cortex, at behind
the brain.
7
 THE VISUAL FIELD AND RETINAL QUADRANTS
• With the head and eyes in a fixed
• In other words the visual fields of
position, and one eye closed, the
the two eyes overlap to a very
area seen by the opened eye
great extent.
makes up its visual field.
• On either side, however, there is
• If the other eye is also opened a small area seen only by the eye
the area seen is more or less the of that side.
same as was seen with one eye.

8
 THE VISUAL FIELD AND RETINAL QUADRANTS
CONT.
• The visual field is divided into
right and left halves.

• May also be divided into

upper and lower halves of
four quadrants.

• Similarly, each retina can also

be divided into quadrants.

• Images in the field of vision

formed on the retina by the
lens of the eyeball are always
9
 THE VISUAL FIELD AND RETINAL QUADRANTS
CONT.
• If an object is placed in the right half of
the visual field, its image is formed on
the left half of the retina and vice
versa.

• The two halves of the retina are usually

referred to as nasal (= medial) and
temporal (= lateral) halves.

• Left half of the left eye is the temporal

half, while in the right eye it is the nasal
half.

• Image of an object placed in the right

half of visual field falls on the temporal
half of the left retina, and on the nasal 10
 OPTIC NERVE
• Axons of ganglion cells in the retina gather
together at the optic disk in the posterior
pole of the eye, penetrate the sclera, and
form the optic nerve.

• There are approximately one million axons in

the optic nerve.

• Outside the sclera, the optic nerve is covered

[Link]
by extensions of the meninges that
ensheathed the brain.

• The optic nerve enters the cranial cavity

through the optic foramen.

• Lesions of the optic nerve produce unilateral

blindness on the side of the lesion. 11
 OPTIC CHIASMA
• The two optic nerves come
together at the optic chiasma
where partial crossing of optic
nerve fibers takes place.

• Related to the hypothalamus

above and pituitary gland
below.

• Optic nerve fibers from the

nasal half of each retina cross
at the optic chiasma. Inderbir S. (2009) Textbook of Human Neuroanatomy, Eight
Edition.

• Fibers from the temporal halves

remain uncrossed. 12
 OPTIC TRACT
• The crossed and uncrossed fibers from both optic nerves join
caudal to the optic chiasma to form the optic tract.

• Run outwards & backwards from posterolateral aspect of the

optic chiasma.

Inderbir S. (2009) Textbook of Human Neuroanatomy, Eight Edition.

13
 THE LATERAL GENICULATE BODY
• A relay station on the visual
pathway.

Inderbir S. (2009) Textbook of Human Neuroanatomy, Eight Edition.

• Receives fibres from the retinae of
both eyes.
• Its grey matter is partially split to
form six lamellae separated by
nerve fibres.
• Layers are numbered one to six
from ventral to dorsal side.
– Laminae one, four and six receive
fibres from the retina of the opposite
side;
– Laminae two, three and five receive
fibres from the retina of the same side.
14
 GENICULOCALCARINE TRACT AND VISUAL
CORTEX
• Axons of neurons in the
lateral geniculate nucleus
project to the visual cortex in
the occipital lobe via the
geniculocalcarine tract (optic
radiation).

• Geniculocalcarine fibers from

the upper halves of both
retinae course directly
backward around the lateral
ventricle in the inferior part of
the parietal lobe to reach the
visual cortex. [Link] 15
 GENICULOCALCARINE TRACT AND VISUAL
CORTEX CONT.
• The geniculocalcarine fibers project
on neurons in the primary visual
cortex (area 17 of Brodmann).

• Fibers from the upper retina

terminate in the upper calcarine
gyrus,

• those from the lower retina in the

lower calcarine gyrus,

• those from the macular area of the

retina posteriorly, and

• those from the peripheral retina Inderbir S. (2009) Textbook of Human

Neuroanatomy, Eight Edition.
16
 Pupillary reflexes
• Light thrown on an eye causes the
pupil of that eye to contract.

• This is called the direct pupillary light

reflex.

• At the same time the pupil of the other

eye also contracts.

• This is called the consensual light

reflex.

• Impulses from the retina (of the eye on

which light is thrown) travel through
the optic nerve, chiasma and optic
tracts.
17
 Pupillary reflexes
• Near the lateral geniculate
body the fibres concerned
pass into the midbrain and
end in the pretectal nucleus.
• Axons arising from this
nucleus reach the Edinger
Westphal nuclei of both
sides.
• Fibres arising in these
nuclei supply the sphincter
pupillae after relay in the
ciliary ganglion.
18
 Arterial supply to retina
 The retina is supplied by the
central retinal artery, a branch of
ophthalmic artery.

• This an end artery, It divides into

upper and lower branches

• Each branch divides into nasal and

temporal branches

• They supply the deep layers of

retina

 Cones and rods are supplied by

choriocapillaries 19
 Visual acuity test

• Visual acuity testing assesses multiple

modalities of eye function.

• It gives an idea of the optical integrity of

the eyes, as well as the health of the
retina and the ability of the brain to
interpret the images.

• The test is often performed in a well-lit

environment, with the patient standing or
seated at least 6 meters away from the
Snellen chart (a placard with several
lines of letters that get progressively
smaller from top to bottom).
20
 Testing Visual Acuity
• With one eye covered, the patient is asked to read the letters
in each line on the chart, from top to bottom until they are
no longer able to identify the letters.

• This process is repeated with the opposite eye

• Each line is assigned a number which represents the distance

from which a person with normal vision should be able to
identify the letter of that size.

• For example, the largest letter on the chart (at the top) can be
seen clearly by people with normal vision from 60 meters.
21
 CLINICAL CORRELATION
Injuries to different parts of the visual pathway can produce
various kinds of defects;
• Swelling of the optic disk (papilledema) result from cases of;
– Marked increase in intracranial pressure from tumors,

– Bleeding inside the cranial cavity or,

– An increase in cerebrospinal fluid pressure around the nerve

sufficient to interfere with venous return from the retina.

• Tumors in the pituitary gland encroaching on the crossing fibers

of the optic nerve cause degeneration of optic nerve fibers
arising in the nasal halves of both retinae.
– Results in loss of vision in both temporal fields of vision
(bitemporal hemianopia). 22
 CLINICAL CORRELATION
• Loss of vision in one half (right or left) of the visual field is
called hemianopia.

• If the same half of the visual field is lost in both eyes the
defect is said to be homonymous and if different halves are
lost the defect is said to be heteronymous.

• Injury to the optic nerve will obviously produce total

blindness in the eye concerned

• Partial injury may affect only one quadrant. The resulting

condition is called quadrantic anopia. 23
 CLINICAL CORRELATION CONT.
• Damage to the central part of the optic chiasma (e.g., by pressure from an enlarged
hypophysis) interrupts the crossing fibres derived from the nasal halves of the two
retinae resulting in bitemporal heteronymous hemianopia.
• When the lateral part of the chiasma is affected a nasal hemianopia results. This
may be unilateral or bilateral.

• Complete destruction of the optic tract, the lateral geniculate body, the optic
radiation or the visual cortex of one side, results in loss of the opposite half of the
field of vision. A lesion on the right side leads to left homonymous hemianopia.

• Lesions of the geniculocalcarine tract give rise to a contralateral homonymous

hemianopia.

• Because of the spread of geniculocalcarine fibers in the parietal and temporal lobes,
a lesion involving part of this fiber system at these sites produces a contralateral
quadrantic visual field defect;
– upper if the temporal fibers are affected and
– lower if the parietal fibers are affected. 24
 CONCLUSION
• The eye is a very important and useful organ.

• Most of our perception of the environment around us comes

through our eyes.

• The eyeball contains the optical apparatus of the visual

system

• Information on the image formed by the retina gets to the

brain through the visual pathway.

• The visual pathway comprises of the optic nerve, optic

chiasma, optic tract, lateral geniculate body, optic radiations
and the visual cortex. 25
 Auditory pathway
•Transmits auditory stimulus from hearing receptors
(organ of corti`s) to auditory area in cerebral cortex.
 Organ of Corti (receptor)
 Dorsal & ventral cochlear nuclei
 Trapezoid body & Superior olivary nuclei
 Lateral lamniscus
 Inferior colliculus
 Medial geniculate body
 Auditory radiation
 Auditory cortex
26
27
 Auditory pathway
• Cochlear nuclei-receptors- hair cells in Organ
of Corti
• 1st order neuron- spiral ganglion- bipolar
neurons peripheral process hair cells of
spiral ganglion-central processes & axons -
cochlear nerve- bifurcates & terminate in
Dorsal & Ventral Cochlear Nu

• 2nd order neurons - dorsal & ventral – axons

CROSS & few uncrossed in dorsal part of
Lower part of pon Superior Olivary nucleus-
•
• 3rd Neuron – Superior Olivary Nucleus -
lateral lemniscus Formation of Trapezoid
body- In dorsal part of pons
intermediate /dorsal acoustic striae-
nucleus of trapezoid body.
28
• Lateral lemniscus – terminate at –Inferior
 Auditory pathway
• Inferior colliculus - 4th Order Neuron
- center for auditory reflexes
Medial Geniculate body through
inferior brachium.
• Medial Geniculate body - 5th order of
neuron & is Final Relay Station -
hearing pathway.
• 5th order of neuron – starts from
MGB- forms acoustic
radiation -reaches- acoustic area
of cerebral hemisphere –

• Acoustic area accepts bilateral

impulses.
• Temporal lobe - Superior Temporal
29
gyrus area 41,42.
 Auditory areas
•Primary auditory area -
floor of post ramus of
lateral sulcus.
•Superior surface of
superior temporal gyrus
has two transverse
temporal gyri (Heschl’s
gyrus)
• area-41 & 42 receives
inputs from medial
geniculate body.
30
 Auditory areas
• Primary auditory area – area 41
• Superior temporal gyrus – bilateral representation
• Detection of direction & frequency of sound.

• Lower frequencies are located in

anterior/lateral part & higher frequencies are

located in posterior/medial part

• Auditory association area - area 42 – co-

relates and comprehension of present stimulus

to past ones
• Higher Auditory association area -
area 22 – Wernicke's area-
comprehension of spoken language &
interpretation of sound.
31
 APPLIED ANATOMY
• Lesion of primary auditory area 41 & 42 of one side produces
bilateral partial deafness, b/o bilateral receiving of inputs via medial
geniculate body.
• Auditory association cortex- area 22 , Wernicke's speech area.
Interpretation of sounds on past experiences. Sensory aphasia.

• Sensory aphasia- unable to understand written or spoken words

with normal vision/hearing.

• Wernicke's aphasia- inability to understand spoken or written words

– Broca’s uses all meaningless and incorrect words…no
meaning. Called-fluent aphasia or receptive aphasia ,
• Broca’s aphasia- unable to articulate words- nonfluent aphasia,
hesitant aphasia /distorted- 32
 OLFACTORY PATHWAYS
• The olfactory tract is the outflow
pathway of the olfactory bulb.
• An elongated extension of the white
matter of the brain (like the optic
nerve).

• Lies in the olfactory sulcus beside the

gyrus rectus on the inferior surface of
the frontal lobe.
• Its anterior end is expanded as the
olfactory bulb.

• After passing through the cribriform

plate of the ethmoid, the olfactory
nerve filaments synapse with the cells
of the second order neuron in the
bulb. 33
 OLFACTORY PATHWAYS
Divisions
• At the anterior perforated
substance, which lies on the
inferior surface of the frontal lobe,
the tract divides into;
– Lateral
– Intermediate and
– Medial striae.

• The lateral stria runs along the

anterolateral margin of the anterior
perforated substance to the region
of the uncus, at the front of the
parahippocampal gyrus

34
 OLFACTORY PATHWAYS
• The intermediate stria blends
with the anterior perforated
substance.

• The medial stria passes in front

of the lamina terminalis and
makes connections with other
parts of the limbic system.

• The olfactory pathway reaches

the olfactory cortex without relay
in the thalamus, unlike other
sensory pathways (light, sound,
taste, touch).
35
 OLFACTORY PATHWAYS

 It is important to note that the olfactory nerve is made up of multiple nerve fibers/rootlets
coming from the receptor's cells.
 The pathway can be summarized as follows:
• olfactory receptor cells
• olfactory nerves
• olfactory bulb
• olfactory tract
• olfactory striae
• olfactory cortex

36
 First neurons:
OLFACTORY PATHWAY
• Olfactory receptors are specialized, ciliated nerve cells
that lie in the olfactory epithelium.
• The axons of these bipolar cells 12-20 fibers form the true
olfactory nerve fibers, which passes through the cribriform
plate of ethmoid.
• They join the olfactory bulb.
• Preliminary processing of olfactory information is within
the olfactory bulb, which contains interneurons and large
Mitral cells; axons from the latter leave the bulb to form
the olfactory tract.
 Second neurons:
• It is formed by the Mitral cells of olfactory bulb.
• The axons of these cells form the olfactory tract.
• Each tract divides into two roots at the anterior perforated
substance:
• Lateral root carries olfactory fibers to end in cortex of the
Uncus & adjacent part of Hippocampal gyrus (center of
smell).
• Medial root crosses midline through anterior commissure
and joins the uncrossed lateral root of opposite side.
• It connects olfactory centers of two cerebral
hemispheres. Thus, each olfactory center receives smell
sensation from both halves of nasal cavity. 37
 OLFACTORY BULB
 In the cranial cavity, the
fibers enter the olfactory
bulb, which lies in the
olfactory groove, within the
anterior cranial fossa.
 The olfactory bulb is an
ovoid structure which
contains specialized neurons,
called mitral cells.
 The olfactory nerve fibers
synapse with the mitral
cells, forming collections
known as synaptic
glomeruli.
 From the glomeruli, second
order nerves then pass
posteriorly into the olfactory
tract.
38
 OLFACTORY TRACT
 The olfactory tract runs inferiorly to the
frontal lobe to reaches the anterior perforated
substance to divides into medial and lateral
stria:
• The lateral stria carry the axons
to the olfactory area of the cerebral cortex
(also known as the primary olfactory
cortex).
• The medial stria carry the
axons across the medial plane of the
anterior commissure where they meet the
olfactory bulb of the opposite side.
 The primary olfactory cortex sends nerve fibers
to many other areas of the brain, like
piriform cortex, amygdala, olfactory tubercle
and the secondary olfactory cortex.
 These areas are involved in the memory
and appreciation of olfactory sensations.
39
 OLFACTORY STRIAE
 Posterior and anterior to
the optic chiasm, the
olfactory tract on both
sides divides into medial
and lateral olfactory
striae.
 The medial stria projects
to the anterior
commissure, and then to
contralateral olfactory
structures.

 The lateral stria continues

to structures associated
with the olfactory cortex.
40
 OLFACTORY CORTEX
 This cortex is not a single
structure, rather, it is defined as
the combined areas of the cerebral
cortex (generally within the
temporal lobe) that receive input
directly from the olfactory bulb.
 These regions include the
following:
 Piriform cortex: which is located
below the lateral olfactory stria.
 Amygdala: which is located
anterior to the temporal/inferior
horn of the lateral ventricle and is
associated with the emotion of fear.
 Entorhinal cortex: which is
the anterior part of the
parahippocampal gyrus and is
involved in the formation of
memory
41
 APPLIED ANATOMY
• ANOSMIA
 The complete absence of the sense of
smell.
 It can be temporary or permanent.

 Temporary anosmia can be caused by

infection or by local disorders of the
nose.

 Permanentanosmia can
be caused by head injury, or
tumours which occur in the olfactory
groove (e.g. meningioma).

 Anosmia canalso occur as a

result of neurodegenerative
conditions, such as Parkinson’s or
Alzheimer’s disease
42
 DYSOSMIA

 A distortion in the quality of the

perception of an odor.
 Sometimes, the perception of an
odor when no odor is present.

 Damage to olfactory nerve

fibers can occur as a
complication of upper respiratory
tract infections.

 A decrease in the number of

nerve fibers from these
infections mean that there are
not enough different fibers to
accurately differentiate odors
resulting in parosmia
43
 HYPOSMIA
 It is the reduction of the ability to
smell and to detect odors.
 The causes include allergies, nasal
polyps, viral infections and head
trauma.
 Older people are subjected to have
hyposmia.
 Hyposmia might be a very early
sign of Parkinson's disease.
 Life long hyposmia could be
caused by Kallmann syndrome
or Autistic Spectrum Disorder.
44
 HYPEROSMIA
 Hyperosmia is an increased olfactory
sharpness with increased sense of
smell.
 This perceptual disorder arises when
there is an abnormally increased signal
at any point between the olfactory
receptors and the olfactory cortex.
 The causes may include genetic,
hormonal or environmental.
 When odorants enter the nasal
cavity, they bind to odorant eceptors
at the base of the olfactory epithelium.
 These receptors are bipolar neurons that
connect to the glomerular layer of the
olfactory bulb, traveling through the
cribriform plate.
 The hyperosmic person may need to
be removed from strong odorants for a
period of time if the sensation becomes
unbearable.
45