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Electromagnetic Testing

American Society for

Nondestructive Testing
Lessons 8 through 18
Compiled for ASNT by:

Hussein M. Sadek
Technologies Consulting
International, Inc.
 Lesson 6

Coil Impedance
 Test Object

There are three properties of material that

affect the eddy current induced in the test
object.
1. Conductivity.
2. Permeability.
3. Dimensions.
 Conductivity
1. Conductivity of a material is defined as
the ability of the material to carry
electrical current.
2. The symbol of conductivity is and the
unit is expressed in %IACS.
 Conductivity, cont.

3. In IACS (International Annealed Copper

Standard), the conductivity of unalloyed (pure)
annealed copper of (100%) was selected as the
standard, and the conductivities of all other
materials are expressed as a percentage of this
standard.
4. The following table lists the IACS of several
materials.
Conductivity, cont.
 Conductivity, cont.

5. Resistivity is defined as the ability of

material to resist the flow of current.
6. The symbol for resistivity is ρ (rho) and the
unit is expressed in micro-ohm centimeters
(µΩcm).
7. As resistivity increases, conductivity
decreases, and vice versa.
 Conductivity, cont.

8. The following table lists the electrical

conductivity and resistivity of common
metal and alloys.
9. To convert to either conductivity or
resistivity, the following equation can be
used.
Conductivity, cont.
 Alloy Composition

1. Alloys are combinations of other metals

and/or chemical elements with a base metal.
2. Each metal or chemical element has an
individual affect on the conductivity of the
base metal. Thus it is possible to identify
basic metals and their alloys by measuring
their conductivity.
 Lesson 6 Review 1

The properties of material that affect the eddy

current induced in the test object are:

Conductivity
? Permeability

Dimensions

All the Above

 Hardness

1. When a metal or alloy is subjected to heat

treatment, the metal will become harder or
softer depending on the material.
2. This change in hardness is brought about by
the internal change in the material that
affects the conductivity and/or permeability
of the material. An improper heat treatment
can be detected in this manner.
 Temperature
and Residual Stress
1. The ambient temperature and internal
residual stresses of a test material also have
an affect on the conductivity of the material.
2. An increase of temperature of the material
normally results in a decrease in the
conductivity of the material.
3. Residual stresses cause unpredictable, but
detectable, change in conductivity.
 Conductive Coatings

1. The presence of a conductive coating on a

conductive material changes the inherent
conductivity of the base metal just as alloy
would.
2. If the thickness of the cladding varies, the
conductivity will vary. This change in thickness
can be detected using eddy current testing.
 Edge Effect

1. The coil’s field precedes the coil by some

distance determined by the coil diameter,
test frequency and test object properties.
2. As the coil approaches the edge of a test
object, eddy currents become distorted by
the edge signal. This is known as edge
effect.
 Skin Effect

1. Skin effect is the concentration of eddy currents

in the test object nearest the test coil and it is a
result of mutual interactions of eddy currents,
test frequency and material properties such as
conductivity and permeability.
2. Electromagnetic tests are most sensitive to test
objects’ variables nearest the test coil due to
skin effect.
 End Effect

1. End effect is the signal observed when the

end of a product approaches the rest coil.
2. Response to end effect can be reduced by
coil shielding or reducing coil length.
3. This term is most applicable to the
inspection of bar or tubular products.
 Permeability

1. Permeability is defined as the ease with

which material can be magnetized.
2. Soft iron and iron with low carbon content
are very easy to magnetize and are highly
permeable.
3. Hardened ferromagnetic steel with high
carbon content is hard to magnetize and has
low permeability.
 Residual Magnetism

1. Although hard, ferromagnetic steel has low

permeability and difficult to magnetize.
2. It will hold some magnetism after the
magnetizing current is shut off. That is how
a permanent magnet is made.
3. The magnetism retained in a magnet is
called residual magnetism.
 Dimensional Factors

Dimensional factors of the material fall

under two types:
1. The dimension, shape, and thickness of
the test object.
2. The presence of discontinuities in the
test object.
 Lesson 6 Review 2

Distorted eddy currents near the edge

of a test object are known as:

End Effect?No
Edge Effect ?Yes
?No
Skin Effect
 Test Object Shape
and Thickness
1. Eddy currents do not penetrate throughout
thick material but tend to be concentrated
near the surface. Thus there is a limit to the
depth of penetration.
2. The depth of penetration is defined as the
distance from the surface of the test object to
the point where the current density is about
37% of the current density at the surface.
 Test Object Shape and Thickness,
cont.
3. The depth of penetration of eddy currents in
a nonmagnetic test object depends on the
conductivity of the nonmagnetic material
and the (AC) frequency used to energize the
test coil.
4. The higher the conductivity, the less the
penetration.
 Test Object Shape and Thickness,
cont.
5. The lower the frequency, the higher the
penetration.
6. When the material is thin enough, as shown
in the following image, so that all the coil’s
magnetic field is not used in creating eddy
currents, the strength of the eddy currents is
reduced.
Test Object Shape and Thickness,
cont.
 Discontinuities
1. A discontinuity is defined as any interruption in
the normal physical structure or configuration
of an object.
2. The flow of eddy currents within the material is
affected by the presence of discontinuities,
such as cracks, pits, voids, and corrosion.
3. Discontinuities in a test object disturb the
normal eddy current flow and this results in a
change in the coil impedance.
 Discontinuities, cont.

4. Discontinuities open to the surface are more

easily detected than subsurface
discontinuities.
5. The depth, width, and length of a
discontinuity determine the change in the
eddy current flow, as illustrated in the
following image.
Discontinuities, cont.
 Lesson 6 Review 3

Which factors affect conductivity?

Hardness
? Residual Stress

Alloy Composition

All the Above

 Lesson 7

Eddy Current Test Systems

and Analysis
 Impedance Testing Systems

1. Impedance testing systems are the simplest

to operate.
2. Most of the portable conductivity testers
and discontinuity detectors detect changes
in impedance rather than phase shifts.
 Impedance Testing Systems, cont.

3. The most difficult task is the ability to

recognize whether a change in impedance is
due to a change of lift-off or due to a change
in conductivity.
4. The presence of discontinuities in material
will also cause changes in the impedance.
 Phase Analysis Systems

1. Phase analysis systems are capable of

detecting shift in phase angles resulted form
change of coil impedance. It is possible
using these systems to observe the phase
shifts rather than the impedance change to
determine the conditions that exist in the
material.
 Phase Analysis Systems, cont.

2. The impedance of a coil may be represented by

a vector, whose length represents the
impedance value and whose direction
represents a phase angle (the angle by which
the current lags behind the voltage).
3. These vectors may be measured and plotted on
a chart known as the impedance-plane diagram.
The impedance-plane diagram may be plotted
using the impedance value and the phase angle
or the resistive component and the reactive
component.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram
1. The following figure illustrates a typical
impedance-plane representation of several
impedances obtained by eddy current
testing from several different types of
nonmagnetic metals with the same test set
and the same frequency with different
conductivity.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.

2. The following figure illustrates a curve

drawn connecting the impedance value of
each vector. This curve is the locus of all the
impedances that will result from changes in
conductivity.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.

3. An increase in conductivity will cause the

impedance to move to the right and down
along the curve, while decrease in
conductivity will cause the impedance to
move up and to the left.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
4. The next image illustrates the locus of all
impedances that will result as the coil is lifted
off the 100% IACS material. (All other factors
held constant.) As the coil is lifted of the
material, the impedance moves in the direction
indicted by the dashed line. As the coil is further
removed, the impedance moves further along
the dashed line until the material no longer
affects the coil (coil is in air).
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.

5. The next image illustrates a family of lift-off

curves, each one starting at different
conductivity. Note the angles (A & B) formed
at the junctions of the lift-off locus curves
and conductivity locus curve. In the areas of
low conductivity the angle (B) is small. In
the areas of high conductivity, the angle (A)
is larger.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
 Lesson 7 Review 1

Portable conductivity testers usually detect

a change in phase angle and not
impedance.

True?
True ! Fals ?
e
 Effect of Frequency on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram
If the frequency of the voltage applied to the
coil is changed, there is a change in the
resistive and reactive factors of the
impedance.
 Effect of Material Thickness
on the Impedance-Plane
Diagram
1. The following figures show the effect of
thickness changes as applied to brass material.
Effect of Material Thickness on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
 Effect of Material Thickness on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.

2. The thickness loci may be plotted by

measuring the resistance and reactance of a
very thin sheet of brass and repeating the
process for steadily increasing thicknesses.
3. When the resistance and reactance values
reach the conductivity curve, further
thickness increases will have no effect.
 Effect of Frequency on
Thickness Measurements
1. The next image shows the effect that
change in frequency has on thickness
measurements of brass material.
Effect of Frequency on Thickness
Measurements, cont.
 Effect of Frequency on Thickness
Measurements, cont.

2. Since a change in frequency changes the

depth of penetration, a lower frequency will
give a greater depth of penetration when
the conductivity curve is reached. Raising
the frequency will have the opposite effect.
 Effect of Conductivity and
Permeability on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram
1. The following images
illustrate the different
loci curves for magnetic
materials in comparison
to nonmagnetic material.
 Effect of Conductivity and
Permeability
on the Impedance-Plane Diagram,
cont.
 Effect of Conductivity and
Permeability
on the Impedance-Plane Diagram,
cont.
2. With phase analysis, an operator can
produce impedance plane plots that can
represent the following material conditions.
a. Lift-off and edge effects.
b. Cracks.
 Effect of Conductivity and
Permeability
on the Impedance-Plane Diagram,
cont.
c. Material separation and spacing.
d. Permeability.
e. Specimen thinning.
f. Conductivity.
g. Plating thickness.
 Lesson 7 Review 2

Lift-off and permeability loci curves are

superimposed for magnetic materials.

True or False
True!
?
 Cathode Ray Tube Methods:
Vector Point Method
1. When a CRT is provided as a part of the test
equipment, the equipment may be set up to
show on the tube the locus of all points in
which the operator is interested.
2. The operator may construct, point by point,
the impedance-plane diagram directly on
the tube rather than on a separate sheet of
graph paper.
 Cathode Ray Tube Methods:
Vector Point Method, cont.

3. During this test method, the impedance of

the coil will cause a dot to appear at some
point on the CRT screen. Its position will
provide the operator with information on
what has occurred within the test object, as
illustrated in the following figure.
Cathode Ray Tube Methods
Vector Point Method, cont.
 Ellipse Display Method

1. A CRT may also be set up to compare a test

object with a reference standard. The ellipse
method uses an inspection coil in
conjunction with a reference coil.
2. The dimension variable and the conductivity
variable are shown on the CRT by the width
of the ellipse and the angle tilt of the axis,
as illustrated in the next figure.
Ellipse Display Method
 Modulation Analysis

1. A modulation analysis system, as illustrated

in
the next figure, adds a modulating device
between the test set and the indicating
device
(a strip-chart recorder).
Modulation Analysis, cont.
 Modulation Analysis, cont.

2. The modulation device is simply an

electronic filter that will pass only certain
frequencies.
3. A differential coil is used so that two
adjacent areas of the article are compared.
4. Using either a low or high frequency filter,
the effect of one variable or the other is
eliminated from the strip-chart readout.
 Lesson 7 Review 3

Which are considered CRT tube methods?

?
? ? ?
Ellipse Display Method

Method Modulation Analysis

?? Vector Point Method

?
? ?
 Lesson 10

Selection of Test Frequency

 Test Frequency

1. The frequency of an alternating current is

defined as the number of cycles that occur
in one second. The unit is the hertz (Hz).
One hertz is equal to one cycle per second.
2. The depth of eddy current penetration
within test materials is strongly affected by
test frequency, permeability, and
conductivity.
 Test Frequency, cont.

3. Higher frequencies normally limit the eddy

current test inspection of the excited metal
surface nearest the primary coil winding.
Lower frequencies will allow eddy currents
to penetrate deeper in lower conductivity
alloys than in higher conductivity alloys.
 Depth of Penetration

1. Eddy currents are not uniformly distributed

throughout a test object. They are mostly
dense at the surface closest to the coil, and
become less dense with increasing distance
below the surface of the material.
 Depth of Penetration, cont.

2. At some distance below the surface of a

thick material there will be essentially no
currents flowing. The depth of penetration is
affected by:
a. Frequency.
b. Conductivity of the material.
c. Permeability of the material.
 Depth of Penetration, cont.

3. The standard depth of penetration is defined

as the depth at which the current strength
has dropped 37% of the current density that
exists at the surface. The following image
shows the distribution of currents in a
material.
Depth of Penetration, cont.
 Depth of Penetration, cont.

4. As frequency increases, depth of

penetration decreases.
5. As frequency decreases, depth of
penetration increases.
6. The higher the conductivity and
permeability, the less the penetration.
 Depth of Penetration, cont.

7.A depth of penetration formula using resistivity,

frequency, and permeability can be expressed as:

where δ is depth of penetration, K is constant

(1.98),  is resistivity, f is frequency and µrel is 1
for nonmagnetic materials.
 Depth of Penetration, cont.

The limit frequency can be expressed as:

where fg is the limit frequency, 5066 is constant,

µrel is the relative permeability, is conductivity
and d is diameter of test object.
 Depth of Penetration, cont.

8. The next image shows the standard depth of

penetration for several materials with
different conductivities at various operating
frequencies.
Depth of Penetration, cont.
 Lesson 8 Review

Penetration depth within test materials

is affected by:

Permeability
?
?
Conductivity
?
Frequency

All the Above

 Single Frequency Systems

These systems are capable of energizing the

test coil with a single frequency.
 Multi-Frequency Systems
1. These systems are capable of energizing test
coils by more than one frequency.
2. Although several frequencies may be applied
simultaneously or sequentially to a test, each of the
individual frequencies follow rules established by
single frequency methods.
3. Modern multi-frequency eddy current systems allow
the operator to perform discontinuity detection
using the differential mode and absolute mode
simultaneously.
Lesson 9

Coupling
 Lift-Off and Fill Factor

Lift-off and fill factor are terms used to

describe any space that occurs between the
test object and the inspection coil.
 Lift-Off

1. When a surface coil is energized and held in

the air above a conductor, the impedance of
the coil has a certain value.
2. As the coil is moved closer to the conductor,
the initial value will change when the field of
the coil begins to intercept the conductor.
 Lift-Off, cont.

3. Because the field of the coil is strongest close to

the coil, the impedance value will continue to
change until the coil is directly on the conductor.
4. The coupling between the test coil and the
test object varies with spacing between the
test coil and the test object. This spacing is
called lift-off.
5. Lift-off pertains to tests that use surface probes.
 Fill Factor

1. Fill factor is a term used to describe how

well a test object will be electromagnetically
coupled to a test coil that surrounds or is
inserted into the test object.
2. Fill factor pertains to tests that use bobbin
or encircling coils.
 Fill Factor, cont.

3. Fill factor can be described as the ratio of

test object diameter squared to coil
diameter squared for an encircling coil, or
vice versa for a bobbin coil where the inside
diameter is used.
 Fill Factor, cont.

4. Fill factor = d2 / D2
where d = coil winding outside
diameter and D = test object internal
diameter
or D2 / d2 (encircling coil)
where D = coil winding inner diameter
and d = test object outside diameter
 Fill Factor, cont.

5. The fill factor will always be a number less

than 1. The following image illustrates the
concepts of both lift-off and fill factor.
Fill Factor, cont.
 Lesson 9 Review

The term lift-off would apply to:

?
? ?
Encircling Coils Surface Coils

?
? ?
Bobbin Coils
?
?
All the Above
?
 Lesson 12

Electromagnetic Testing
Applications
 Eddy Current Applications

Eddy current testing can detect

discontinuities such as cracks, seams, pits
and corrosion.
 Aerospace Applications
Measurement of Metal and
Coating Thickness
1. In the aerospace industry, numerous metal
parts are coated or plated to obtain special
surface properties such as corrosion
resistance, wear resistance, or improved
appearance.
 Aerospace Applications
Measurement of Metal and
Coating Thickness, cont.

2. The coatings are prepared by various means

such as:
a. Electron-deposition.
b. Cladding.
c. Spraying.
 Aerospace Applications
Measurement of Metal and
Coating Thickness, cont.
3. Four general types of coating and base materials
lend themselves to eddy current testing:
a. Metal foil and sheet or metal coating on a
nonconductive base material, such as
metallic film on glass, ceramic, or plastics.
b. Metal cladding with higher conductivity than
the base metal, such as copper, zinc on
steel, or pure aluminum on aluminum alloy.
 Aerospace Applications
Measurement of Metal and
Coating Thickness, cont.
c. Metal cladding with lower conductivity
than the base metal, such as nickel on
aluminum.
d. Nonconductive coating on metallic base
material, such as anodic film or paint on
aluminum, or other organic coatings on
metals.
 Reference Standards for
Thickness Testing
[Link] least three objects with known metal thickness
are needed as reference standards to calibrate
equipment.
[Link] reference standards represents the minimum
acceptable thickness, the second represents the
maximum acceptable thickness, and the third is
from the middle of the range.
[Link] calibration standards must have the same
conductivity, permeability, substrate thickness,
and basic geometry of the test objects.
 Metal Thickness

Tests for measuring metal thickness are

generally used on chemically milled sheet
stock, thin wall tubing, metal foil bonded to
nonmetallic materials, and thin objects that
may experience thinning from corrosion.
 Metal Spacing

1. When a gap separates two metal sheets, the gap

may be filled with a nonmetallic shim or may be
purposely produced as a fixed dimension.
2. If it is desired to measure the gap or spacing, an
operating frequency must be chosen so that eddy
currents will be generated in the second
(subsurface) layer, as shown in the following
image.
Metal Spacing, cont.
 Tests of Metal Conductivity

Eddy current conductivity meters

usually differ with respect to operating
frequency, lift-off, temperature,
sensitivity, and probe size
compensation or means of presenting
test results.
 Testing of Bolt Holes
1. Small cracks in material located next to
fastener holes may go undetected until the
cracks grow to a size that allows detection
at the surface not covered by the head of
the fastener or nut.
2. A crack of this magnitude and under high
stresses may continue to grow to failure at a
rapid rate.
 Testing of Bolt Holes, cont.

3. Eddy current tests are well known for

detecting small fatigue cracks, particularly
in aluminum fastener holes.
4. The following figure illustrates a typical eddy
current hole probe.
Testing of Bolt Holes, cont.
 Testing of Aircraft
Structures
1. Eddy current tests can be used to detect
fatigue cracks resulting from cyclic loading
during flight, take-off, or landing.
2. Organizations have used automated eddy
current testing to ensure that critical engine
components are free of rejectable surface
discontinuities.
 Chemical and Petroleum
Applications
1. Heat exchanger tube testing is an important
part of maintenance for the refining and
petroleum industry.
2. Heat exchangers and condensers are designed
to keep products in the tubes separate from
products in the vessel. A leaking tube could
cause a significant impact on production,
catastrophic failure, and perhaps loss of life.
 Chemical and Petroleum
Applications, cont.

3. Eddy current bobbin probes are used in this

application. They test for discontinuities in
the tubes such as cracks, corrosion, and
mechanical abnormalities that may affect
the integrity of the tube.
 Lesson 10 Review 1

Fatigue cracks in aluminum fastener holes can

be detected with eddy current testing.

True?
True ! Fals ?
e
 Power Generation
Applications
1. The most common use of electromagnetic
testing in the power industry is tube testing
in heat exchangers such as:
a. Steam generators (nuclear plants).
b. Balance of plant (BOP), nuclear and
fossil.
c. Oil coolers.
 Power Generation
Applications
[Link] following table shows a list of heat
exchangers and damage mechanisms in
power generation applications.
Power Generation Applications, cont.
 Industrial Air Conditioning
Chillers Applications
1. Cooling for large buildings and
manufacturing facilities is most commonly
provided by industrial chillers (comfort
cooling).
2. A typical chiller has two heat exchanger
bundles (condenser and evaporator).
 Industrial Air Conditioning Chillers
Applications, cont.

3. These heat exchanger tubes have fins on

their outside and inside diameters to
increase heat transfer surface and improve
cooling water flow.
4. The following figure shows a typical
centrifugal chiller with the condenser and
evaporator heat exchanger sections.
Industrial Air Conditioning Chillers
Applications, cont.
 Primary Metals Industries
Testing of Hot Rolled Bars
There are several requirements for an
effective electromagnetic bar testing:
1. High discontinuity sensitivity.
2. Ability to classify bar quantity.
3. Full automatic operation.
 Primary Metals Industries
Testing of Hot Rolled Bars, cont.

4. Rugged construction for use in mills.

5. Ability to test bars as received without
special preparation.

A rotating surface probe eddy current

technique has been used for the testing of
hot rolled bars.
 Testing of Square Billets

1. Eddy current testing can automatically

inspect 100% of the surface of steel billets
without the need of an operator’s judgment
for interpreting test results.
2. A typical system can detect seams, evaluate
their severity, and mark the location of
those that exceed an acceptable depth.
 Testing of Square Billets, cont.

3. The key component in this system is a

scanning head assembly that keeps an eddy
current probe in contact with, and tangent
to, the billet surface at all locations around
the periphery, including the corners.
 Testing of Hot Steel Rods
and Wires
1. Surface discontinuity testing is essential in
the quality assurance of iron and steel
products.
2. In many mills, eddy current and flux leakage
testing are carried out after the rolling,
shearing, and cooling process.
 Testing of Hot Steel Rods
and Wires, cont.

3. Eddy current testing using an encircling coil

has been applied for the testing of hot
rolling of bars and hot wires. Generally the
encircling coils are in the differential mode
coil arrangement.
4. This system can detect short discontinuities,
such as scabs and roll marks.
 Lesson 10 Review 2

Which discontinuities are found

in heat exchanger tubes?

Mechanical Damage Cracks

Pitting Tube Wall Loss

?
All the Above
 Lesson 11

Electromagnetic Testing
Standards & Procedures
 Calibration Standards

1. Calibration is used to adjust equipment

sensitivity to various test object parameters
such as: cracks, surface roughness,
conductivity/permeability variations, and
other material conditions.
 Calibration Standards, cont.

2. The development and use of electromagnetic

reference standards requires understanding
and considerations of the test to be performed.
This should include:
a. The material of the test object.
b. Size and shape.
c. Discontinuities of interest.
d. Means of producing artificial discontinuities.
 Calibration Standards, cont.

e. Non-relevant indications that might

be encountered.
f. Instrument capabilities and limitations.
g. Criteria for relevant indications.
 Reference Standards
Conductivity Standards
1. In eddy current testing, frequent use is made of
measurements of conductivity based on the
International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS).
2. Two standards metal blocks are supplied with
conductivity measuring instruments. One block
represents a high level of conductivity, while the
other represents a low level of conductivity.
3. The percentage value in IACS is stamped on the
blocks, as illustrated in the next figure.
 Reference Standards
Conductivity Standards, cont.
 Coating Thickness
Standards
Coating thickness standards of uniform thickness
are available in two types:
1. Foils of known thicknesses laid on an
appropriate substrate.
2. Actual coatings affixed to prepared substrates
as supplied or recommended by the
instrument manufacturer or the
standardization organization, as listed in the
following table.
Coating Thickness Standards, cont.
 Discontinuity Standards

A discontinuity standard should:

1. Duplicate the test situation for material type
and geometry.
2. Include discontinuities that establish the
maximum discontinuity that is acceptable.
3. Establish the sensitivity of the test system.
 Natural Discontinuity
Standard
1. This consists of duplicates of the test piece
configuration that contain natural
discontinuities of a known size and shape.
2. At least one of the discontinuities should be
at the limit of acceptability.
3. Natural discontinuities can be developed or
accumulated.
 Artificial Discontinuity
1. Standard
Artificial discontinuities may be machined into
duplicate of the test object configuration.
2. Types of discontinuities that can be used to
simulate test object discontinuities include:
a. Longitudinal notches.
b. Circumferential notches.
c. Drilled holes.
d. Flat bottom holes.
e. Diameter steps.
f. Geometry variations.
 Lesson 11 Review

Test object discontinuities can be simulated by:

?
Flat Bottom Holes Drilled Holes
?
? ?
Diameter Steps

?
Longitudinal/Circumferential notches

? All the Above

? ??
 Lift-Off Standards
1. Lift-off standards are easily constructed by the
application of known thicknesses of a
nonconductive material to a sample of the test
object. Paper, polyethylene, and cellophane are
examples of nonconductive material often used.
2. When it is required to measure the thickness of
nonconductive coating, the standard does not
have to be coated with the same nonconductive
coating material since to eddy current testing,
one nonconductive coating is exactly like any
other.
 Lift-Off Standards, cont.

3. If measuring thickness of a nonconductive

coating over a conductive test object, lift-off
standards need to be constructed that
represent both the maximum and the
minimum acceptable standard.
 Sorting Standards

1. When sorting with the absolute encircling coil

technique, a known acceptable calibration
standard and a known unacceptable standard
are required.
2. When using the comparative encircling coil
technique, usually two known acceptable
specimens of the test object and one unknown
unacceptable specimen are required.
 Sorting Standards, cont.

3. It is best to have three calibration standards,

including either two for the high and low limits
of acceptability for one group or one each for
two unacceptable groups. The third standard
represents the acceptable lot of material.
4. Although electromagnetic sorters can be
useful for limited applications, sorting steels is
better done via spectroscopic equipment.
 Specifications

1. In nondestructive testing, a specification is

often written by a commercial organization,
usually one of the primary parties in the
purchasing agreement.
2. A specification is product specific and may
require more stringent limits than a related
standard’s limit.
 Specifications, cont.

3. A specification provided clearly organized

list of testing parameters that describes the
technique for locating and categorizing
discontinuities in a specific test object.
4. A typical specification includes acceptance
criteria and is required by the designer,
buyer, manufacturer, and users of the test
object it covers.
 Procedure

In electromagnetic testing, the term

procedure refers to a set of brief generalized
guidelines that show the inspector how to
perform an accurate test in accordance with
project/industry’s specifications and
requirements.
 Standards and Industry
Specifications
1. Procedures, specifications, and standards
are produced to provide a means of
controlling product or services quality.
2. Written instructions, which guide a company

or individual to desired end results and are

acceptable to the industry, are the basis of
procedures, specifications, and standards.
 Standards and Industry
Specifications, cont.
3. The following are technical organizations
that publish those procedures,
specifications, and standards related to
electromagnetic testing:
a. The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (ASNT).
b. The American Society for Testing
Materials (ASTM).
 Standards and Industry
Specifications, cont.
c. The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME).
d. Military Standards (MIL-STD).
e. American Welding Society (AWS).
Thank You Thank You Thank You