FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

ALS/ ECM412
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENT
COURSE:

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

1
FUNDAMENTALS

COURSE CODE:
ECM 412
CHAPTER
ONE

1 Introduction

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2 Transmission Media

3 Mode of Propagation

4 Noise Analysis

2
 CHAPTER 1:

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
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COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

INTRODUCTION
ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

o A system that transfers information from one place

to another electronically without/with minimal error
between 2 or more locations by using electronic
circuits.

 It is defined as the whole mechanism of sending

and receiving as well as processing of information
electronically from source to a destination. 4

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION

 Start verbal (sound waves).

 Smoke signals ( red indian) or tom-tom

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drums.
 Morse code (telegraph) – by Samuel Finley
Breese Morse.
 Telephone – by Alexander Graham Bell and
Thomas A. Watson.
 Wireless – by Marchese Guglielmo Marconi.

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TRANSMITTING & RECEIVING
 WHAT IS BASEBAND
SIGNAL?
 Baseband signal is the original
information signal either in a
digital or analog form. Putting
the original signal directly into the

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medium is referred to as baseband
transmission. However, there are
many instances when the
baseband signals are
incompatible with the media
and cannot be transmitted directly.
This is when the modulation 7

techniques must be used

 MODULATION @ TRANSMITTER

 Modulation is the process of

modifying or changing one or more

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of the properties of the analog
carrier by the modulating signal
(baseband signal or information
signal).
 The carrier is usually a sine wave

having a higher frequency than the

modulating signal. 8
 DEMODULATION @ RECEIVER
 Demodulation is the reverse process
of modulation that is to extract the

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original baseband information signal
and transmitted message.
 The demodulation process will
convert the modulated carrier back
to original information (detection of
information from the carrier).
 A demodulator is a circuit which
9

performs demodulation in a receiver.

WHY MODULATION IS NEEDED?
1) To generate modulated signal that is
suitable for transmission and

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compatible with the channel.
2) To allow efficient transmission
3) To overcome hardware limitations
4) To allow frequency assignment
5) Multiplexing
6) By modulation techniques,
transmission speed and distance can
be increased 10
 [Link] of Information
Why do we need
communication? Enable to disseminate
information e.g radio,
television, satellite and
broadband tv.
• (One-way)

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[Link] [Link] information
Enable people to Enable to transfer
communicate in a information in the
timely fashion on a form of audio, video,
global level in social, texts, still images
political, economic and and animation from
scientific areas , e.g one place to another,
telephones, e-mail, e.g internet, fax,
video conference mobile phone.
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EXAMPLES OF COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS:

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Mobile telephones, 12
monitoring alarm system
Video Conference

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDA

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broadcast
TV
 COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDA
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RADIO-FIBER LINKS
 COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDA
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INTERNET TELEPHONE
 Cellular telephones

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDA

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Wired telephone
 COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDA
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COMMUNICATIONS
SATELLITE
Basic requirement of a communication system

1. Transfer
Rate

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Basic
requirement of
[Link] a [Link] of
y communication Signal
system:

3.
Simplicity 18
of the
system
SIMPLIFIED BLOCK OF A COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM/MODEL
Noise and
Interference

1 2 3 4 5

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COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

1. Source
 where the information originates, e.g: audio, video, data, etc.
 not suitable for transmission
 need to convert into electrical signal

2. Transmitter
 A collection of one or more electronic devices or circuits that
converts the information from the source to a form which is
suitable

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for transmission over a particular transmission medium.
 Main process : modulation and encoding (digital signal)

3. Channel
 Provides a means of transporting signals between transmitter
and receiver.
 eg: twisted pair, copper cables, free-space, air, optical fiber

4. Receiver
 A collection of one or more electronic devices or circuits
 Accepts the transmitted signals from the transmission medium
 Converts those signals back to their original form.
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5. Destination
 where the original information is displayed via speaker, visual
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDA
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 COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENT
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[Link] MEDIA

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TYPES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

1) Guided Transmission Media

 Conductive metal – eg twisted pair, coaxial cable
 Glass or plastic – eg fiber optic

2) Unguided Transmission Media (wireless)

Air (Earth Atmosphere) and Vacuum (free space)

•A conductive metal such as copper, transports signals

using electric current.
• A fiber optic cable transports signals using light waves.
• Wireless transmission requires no physical media but
relies on electromagnetic waves such as those found in
television and radio broadcasts. The waves radiate by
inducing current in a transmitting antenna and then travel
through the air or free space, eg. microwave or satellite23

transmission.
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412
 METALLIC TRANSMISSION LINES

 Transmission lines - metallic conductor system used to transfer electrical

energy from one point to another using electrical current flow.

 Transmission lines can be short as few inches or several thousand miles.
 Frequency - the rate at which the periodic wave repeats.

Wavelength - the distance of one cycle occurring in space.

distance velocity time

 velocity period
v T
1 v
where, T  - --   
f f
for free - space propagation, v c (speed of lights)
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COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412
 SUMMARY: PARAMETERS OF A WAVE
 Frequency,
f = the number cycles per sec c
(Hz)

 Period, f
T = time taken for a cycle (sec)
T
 Wavelength,
l = the distance traveled by an
electromagnetic wave during
one period (m)

 Velocity
c = velocity of light (m/s)
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FU 25
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TYPES OF TRANSMISSION LINES
(BALANCED OR UNBALANCED)
 Balanced transmission lines:
 with 2 wire balanced line, both wire carry current but is out of
phase by 180(opposite direction).
 main application: in transmission of low freq signal such as
telephone signal or low data rate transmission. (eg: twin-lead)
 Main advantage : good rejection of external noise

 Unbalanced transmission lines:

 One wire is at ground potential, whereas the other wire is at signal
potential.
 Application: transmission of the higher frequency signal. (eg:
coaxial cable)

 Balun:
 A circuit device that is used to connect a balanced transmission
line to an unbalanced load (balanced to unbalanced).
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TRANSMISSION LINES
(BALANCED TRANSMISSION
LINES)
Examples
 Open-wire
 Twin lead
 Twisted pair

(i) Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

(ii) Shielded twisted pair (STP)

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COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

 OPEN WIRE & TWIN LEAD
(BALANCED TL)

Open Wire
(i)
 two wire parallel conductors.
 consists of 2 parallel wires, closely spaced

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and separated by air (about 2 – 6 inches)
 Insulating spacers are needed to prevent
short circuit
 Application: telephone lines, telegraph
 Advantage: simple in construction
 Disadvantages:

(i) high energy loss ( not shielded)

(ii) high interference (crosstalk) 29
 (ii) Twin-lead
• Essentially the same as open wire except
with continuous solid dieletric btw the two
conductors

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• Applications: commonly used as a
transmission line for balanced connection
of television antennas.
• Advantage : Lighter, less bulky and usually
easier to install than ladder lines (open
wire)
• Disadvantage: the power loss per unit
length is greater than in 30

air-insulated lines.
 TWISTED
PAIR (BALANCED TL)

• The twisting cancels out all electromagnetic interference from

neighboring sources, such as crosstalk between nearby wire
pairs.

• Twisted pair lines are shielded to prevent energy loss and

external interference.

• Advantage: Less expensive than other types of cables

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• Disadv : (i) stringent installation requirements
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(ii) not suitable for video data transmission – delay and
 BALANCED TL – TWISTED
PAIR
(I) UNSHIELDED TWISTED-PAIR (UTP)

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COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

BALANCED TL – TWISTED PAIR

(II) SHIELDED TWISTED-PAIR (STP)

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1)100 Ω UTP (UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR)
2)150 Ω STP (SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR)

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 COMPARISONS BETWEEN STP
& UTP:

1)STP is thicker than UTP

cable,

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2)STP is more difficult and
expensive to manufacture.
3)STP cable offers greater
security and greater
immunity to interference 35

than UTP cable.

 UNBALANCED LINE: COAXIAL
CABLE
Inner core – High potential

Outer core - Grounded

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Solid Dielectric
(Insulator)

36
UNBALANCED LINE
 one conductor is connected to the ground
and the other conductor is at signal potential.
 Coaxial cable is an example of unbalanced

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line. The centre conductor is the signal core
and the outer conductor (braider) is at
ground potential.
 The two conductors are separated by a

solid dielectric material or insulator.

 Coaxial cables are used for high data

transmission rates to reduce losses and

isolate transmission path, and used for
analog system transmission line such as 37

cable TV networks.
 COAXIAL TRANSMISSION LINES
A cable consisting of two concentric conductors (an inner
conductor and an outer conductor) insulated from each other by
a dielectric; commonly used for the transmission of high-speed
electronic data and/or video signals and communications
transmission, such as for television signals.

Adv : has very low radiation losses and low susceptibility to external
interference.
Disadv : quite heavy, cannot take sharp bends (causing losses in the
cable). 38

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

 OPTICAL FIBER CABLE
• An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent fiber
that acts as a waveguide or "light pipe", to transmit
light between two ends of the fiber.
• permits transmission over longer distances and at
higher bandwidth (data rates)
• less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic
interference.

A bundle of optical fibers

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COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

 COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDA
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FIBER STRUCTURE
 FIBER CABLES
-the signal flow is in the form of light.
-single OF carry trillions of bits of information
every second.
-the thickness is only slightly larger than a human

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hair.
-virtually immune to all types of interference.

41
 Comparison between
an optical fiber link
and a telephone
cable with its
hundreds of wires.
Both have the same
information carrying
capacity.

Fiber optic cable

Copper cable
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COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

FREE SPACE MEDIUM
 is a wireless system.
Signals are emitted then
radiated through free space or
air.

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Direction of propagation depends on
the direction in which the signal was
emitted. The transmission of signal is
carried out by the propagation of
electromagnetic wave.
attenuation and absorption exist -
which reduces signal strength. 43

Main applications are radio

xamples of communication systems
hat use free space as media Mobile Telephones

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Satellite Systems

GPS
44
The terrestrial electromagnectic waves can
be propagated by three different methods:

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 Ground (surface) wave
propagation

 Sky wave propagation

 Space wave propagation (Line of

Sight).
45
 Transmission paths for
terrestrial electromagnetic waves

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Ground (surface) wave
 Ground wave is a surface wave that
propagates close to the surface of earth.
 It follows the curvature of the earth
 suitable for very low frequency , VLF band
(3-30KHz)
 the wave is connected at one end to the
surface of the earth and to the ionosphere (60
km to 500 km above the earth) at the other.
 suitable for long range ( maritime radio
communication eg ship-to-ship, ship-to-shore)

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COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

SKY WAVE
Wave that propagates upward in
space, rather than either close or
through ground

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 travels upward through the
ionosphere and into space and
return to earth by reflection and
refraction process.

 radio signals in the medium 48

frequency band and above (from

Space wave (LOS = Line-Of-Sight)
 LOS propagation requires a path where both antennas (T
Rx)
are visible to one another and there are no obstructions.

 also known as direct waves

 VHF and UHF

The radio communication
horizon typically
of the antenna use this path.
is the distance
between the
Tx and Rx and is denoted by d,
where d = dt + dr in km
dt = 4ht and dr = 4hr

dt = radio horizon of the transmitting antenna, in

km 49
d = radio horizon of the receving antenna, in km
r
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412
ht = height of the transmitting antenna, in m
 Line of sight propagation

Radio horizon
dt dr

ht hr

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pace wave (LOS) - Example
Radio 3 Shah Alam is transmitting frequency
modulated signal using line of sight (LOS) wave
propagation method. Calculate the height of the
transmitting antenna, if the height of the receiving
antenna is 6m and the distance between the Tx and
Rx is 80 km.
Solution
Given d = 80km and hr = 6m
dr = 4hr = 4 6 = 9.8 km
 dt = d - dr = 80 – 9.8 = 70.2 km

dt = 4ht = 70.2 km
 ht = (70.2/4)2= 308 m
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COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

MICROWAVE
• A microwave link is a communications system that uses a
beam of radio waves in the microwave frequency range to
transmit video, audio, or data between two locations.
• microwave signals must have a straight , line of sight (LOS) path
• solid obstructions, or even heavy rain, sleet, or snow can
degrade or completely obliterate the signal.

52
note: D-distance h- height
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FACTORS TO SELECT MEDIA

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 COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDA
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DISTANCE
 TRANSMISSION MODES
Simplex (SX):
The information travels in one
direction only.
sometimes called one-way only,

receive only, or transmit only

systems.
 Examples: radio and television (TV)

broadcasting, telemetry system of 55

satellite to earth, pager services.

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412
 EXAMPLES OF SIMPLEX MODE
TV broadcast

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ta monitoring transfer
HALF DUPLEX (HDX):

 Half duplex operation is another form of

two-way communications but not
simultaneously.

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 the direction alternates which means
transmission can occur in both directions but
not at the same time. Also called two-way-
alternate or either-way lines.

 Examples: walkie-talkie, facsimiles

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 COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDA
58

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One talks
at a time
DUPLEX
FULL DUPLEX (FDX):

Data transmission is in both direction

simultaneously (but must be between
the same two stations. Also called two-

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way-simultaneous, duplex or both-way
lines.
simultaneous transmission is not
necessarily between the same two
locations. One station can transmits to a
second station and receives from a third
station at the same time.
59
Ex: local telephone call.
 COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDA
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telephone
EXAMPLES OF FULL-DUPLEX

Fixed
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM (ES)
• The ES is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic spectrum.
- is the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed
by that particular object
- covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the
size of an atom (radio to gamma radiation)

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ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM VS TRANSMISSION FREQUENCIES

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 STANDARD TRANSMISSION FREQUENCY RANGE

 ELF
 VF

 VLF

 LF

 HF

 VHF

 UHF

 SHF

 EHF

 Infrared

 Visible

light
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FU 63
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SEGMENTS OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Frequency Band Range (Hz) Applications

Extremely Low Ac power distribution signals
30 - 300 and low end of human hearing
Frequency (ELF)

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range

Voice Frequency Human speech

300 – 3000
(VF)
Very Low Upper end of human hearing
Musical instruments
Frequency (VLF) 3 k – 30 k
Specialized government &
military systems
64
Low Frequency Marine & aeronautical
30 k – 300 k navigation
(LF)
Medium Commercial AM radio
Frequency (MF) 300 k – 3 M broadcasting

High Frequency Referred as short waves

(HF) Two-way radio

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3 M – 30 M
communications,
amateur radio
Very High Mobile radio, marine &
Frequency aeronautical
(VHF) 30 M – 300 M communications,
Commercial FM and
television broadcasting 65
Ultra High Frequency Commercial TV broadcasting,
(UHF) Cellular telephone

300 M – 3 G Radar & navigation system

Microwave & satellite radio
system

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Super High Frequency Microwave
(SHF) 3 G – 30 G Satellite communications and
radar
Extremely High Require complex and expensive
Frequency (EHF) equipment
30 G – 300 G Limited activity include satellite
communications and some
specialized radar
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Infrared Heat-seeking guidance
300 G – systems, electronic
400 T photography,

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Astronomy
Visible Spectrum Optical fiber systems &
(Light) become primary medium
> 400 T of electronic
communications
systems
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LIMITATIONS IN A COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM

2 Categories of limitation:

 Physical Constraints
1) Noise

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2) Bandwidth

 Technological constraint . It includes:

 Equipment availability
 Economy and cost factor
 National and international law and agreement as well as
standardization. (such as International Telecommunication
Union, ITU- allocate the communication services within the
overall spectrum). In the United States, the Federal
Communications Commissions, FCC does this. In Malaysia?
MCMC – Malaysian communication and multimedia
commission (Suruhanjaya Komunikasi dan Multimedia Malaysia) 68
 Interaction with existing systems.
 BANDWIDTH (BW)

 Bandwidth: the information carrying capacity of

information or the frequency content of a signal.

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 Bandwidth of an information signal :
 the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies contained in the information.

 Bandwidth of an information channel/medium:

 the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies that the channel will allow to pass
through it.

 BW of the communication channel/medium must be

large (wide) enough to pass all significant information
frequencies.
69
 Bandwidth, (BW) is the difference between
the upper cut-off frequency, f2 and the lower
cut-off frequency, f1 of the signal that has a
power above a certain threshold, 3 dB within
the maximum value, in the frequency domain.

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BW  f 2  f1

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INFORMATION CAPACITY

 Information capacity is a measure of how much

information can be propagated through a
communication system and is a function of
bandwidth and transmission time.

 It is often convenient to express the information

capacity of a system as a bit rate.

 Bit rate - the number of bits transmitted during one

second and is expressed in bits per second (bps).

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HARTLEY’S LAW
“The greater the bandwidth of
a channel, the greater the
amount of information can be

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transmitted in a given time.
The same amount of
information can still be
transmitted over a narrower
channel, but it will take longer
time.”
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IBT
 SHANNON-HARTLEY THEOREM
“The presence of noise reduces the amount of
information that can be transmitted in a
given bandwidth. If the bandwidth increases,
the information rate will also increase but it

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will also allows more noise to pass.”

I = B log2 (1 + S/N)

This means that if S/N >>1,

I ≈ 0.332 B 10 log10 (S/N)

I ≈ 0.332 x B x SNR in dB

where, I = Information capacity (bps)

B = Bandwidth (Hz) 73
S/N = Signal-to-noise power ratio
WHO IS SHANNON?
"Information Theory."

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True genius in many respects

Mathematician

Engineer

74
  Shannon Law: relationship the information capacity of a
comm. channel to bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio.
 The higher the signal-to-noise ratio, the better the
performance and the higher the information capacity

I = B log2 (1 + S/N)

= B log10 (1 + S/N)
log10 2

Example 1.9:
For a standard telephone circuit with a signal-to-noise power
ratio of 1000 (30 dB) and the bandwidth of 2.7kHz, determine
the Shannon limit for information capacity.
Solution:
I = (2700) log10(1+1000) = 26.9 kbps.
log10 2
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412
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 WHAT IS THE COMMON BETWEEN…
 degrades the quality of signals
and data
 NOISE
 The originality if the signal may
changed
 INTERFERENCE
 affect files and communications
 DISTORTION of all types, including text,
programs, images, audio and
telemetry.

 slows down the data transfer

rate
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 ELECTRICAL NOISE
 Electrical noise is any undesirable/unwanted
electrical energy that falls within the pass-band of
the signal.
 Effect of noise:

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COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412
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Noisecan be categorized into 2
general categories:

1) Correlated noise: It exists

only when a signal is present.
No signal, no noise!.

2) Uncorrelated noise: It
presents all the time whether
there is a signal or not. 79

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

 Uncorrelated Noise (presents all the
time):
Can be further subdivided into 2 general
categories: external and internal.

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External noise:
• Is the noise that generated outside the
communication system, device or circuit.
• Noise originating from outside of the
system is inversely proportional to the
frequency and directly proportional to the
wavelength.
• The 3 primary sources of external noise
are atmospheric, extraterrestrial and 80

man-made.
Internal noise:
 Internal noise is an electrical disturbance
generated within the communication system
or device, and it is specifically from the
receiver of a communication system.

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 This is a random noise created by the

passive or active devices inside the receiver.

 The most significant internal noise is

Thermal noise.
 There are 3 primary kinds of internally

generated noise: shot, transit time and

thermal.
81
SIGNAL TO NOISE POWER
RATIO
 Signal to noise power ratio is the ratio of the
signal power level to the noise power level.
 Is expressed as:

S Ps
 where : Ps Signal power(watts)
N Pn
Pn noise power(watts)

Normally it is expressed as logarithmic function

with the decibel unit
S Ps
( dB ) 10 log
N Pn
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In terms of voltages and resistances
 Vs 2 
 
S Rin
( dB ) 10 log  
N V 2 
 n R 
 out 

where, Rin – input resistance

Rout – output resistance
Vs – signal voltage
Vn – noise voltage

If the input and output resistances are equal in a

system, thenS Vs
( dB ) 20 log
N Vn 83

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

EXAMPLE 1: FOR AN AMPLIFIER WITH AN OUTPUT
SIGNAL POWER OF 10 W AND AN OUTPUT NOISE
POWER OF 0.01 W. DETERMINE THE SIGNAL TO NOISE
POWER RATIO

SOLUTION
THE SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
S Ps 10
  1000
N Pn 0.01
in dB,

S Ps
(dB ) 10 log 10 log 1000 30 dB
N Pn

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COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

Example 2 :For an amplifier with an output signal
voltage of 4 V, an output noise voltage of 0.005 V,
and an input and output resistance of 50 ,
determine the signal to noise ratio

Solution

MENTALS/ ECM412
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDA
S Vs 4
(dB ) 20 log 20 log 58.06 dB
N Vn 0.005

85
 NOISE FACTOR AND NOISE
FIGURE
 Noise Factor (F) and noise figure (NF) are figures of merit
used to indicate how much the signal-to-noise ratio
deteriorates as a signal passes through a circuit or series of
circuits.

 Noise factor (F) = a ratio of input signal-to-noise power ratio

to output signal-to-noise power ratio.
input signal - to - noise power ratio
F (unitless ratio)
output signal - to - noise power ratio

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86
 Noise Figure (NF) = the noise factor stated in dB. This
parameter commonly used to indicate the quality of a
receiver.
input signal - to - noise power ratio
NF 10 log10
output signal - to - noise power ratio

Or in simple word, the noise figure is the noise factor, given in dB

These formulae are only valid when the input termination is at

standard noise temperature To ( 290 K)
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COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

 NOISE FACTOR AND NOISE FIGURE

Signal power in Si Ideal Noiseless Signal power out AP Si Si

 amplifier
 
noise power in N i AP=power gain
noise power out AP N i N i

Signal
Signal power in Si Non-Ideal amplifier power out AP Si Si
 AP=power gain
 
noise power in N i noise AP N i  N d N i  N d AP
Nd=Internally generated
noise power out
No= ApNi+ Nd

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COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

TUTORIAL 1
1) Define electronic communication system (ECS).
2) What are the primary components of an ECS?
3) Define modulation and demodulation
4) Describe 2 reasons why modulation is necessary in
Electronic Communication.
5) What are the 2 most significant limitations on the
performance of an ECS?
6) Define Information Capacity
7) What is meant by the terms external and internal
noise?
8) Explain the diff. between correlated and uncorrelated
noise?
9) Describe the following terms: carrier signal,
modulating signal and modulated wave.
10) What are the 3 properties of sine wave that can be
varied?. Name the types of modulation that result
from each properties. 89
11) Determine the information capacity for
communication channel
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING withECM412
FUNDAMENTALS/ a bandwidth of 50kHz
Example 1

For a non-ideal amplifier and the following parameters, determine

a) Input signal to noise ratio (dB)
b) Output signal to noise ratio (dB)
c) Noise factor and noise figure

input signal power = 2 x 10-10 W

input noise power = 2 x 10-18 W
power gain = 1,000,000
Internal noise (Nd) = 6 x 10-12 W

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90
 •

Solution
𝑆𝑖 2𝑥10−10
ሺ 𝑎ሻ 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = = 100,000,000
𝑁𝑖 2𝑥10−18
In dB ; 10 log (100,000,000) = 80dB

ሺ 𝑏ሻ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟,𝑁𝑜

= 𝐴𝑝𝑁𝑖 +𝑁𝑑 = 1,000,000(2𝑥10

−18
) + 6𝑥10−12 = 8𝑥10−12𝑊

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟,𝑆𝑜

= 𝐴𝑝𝑆𝑖 = 1,000,000(2𝑥10−10 ) = 200𝑥10−6𝑊

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

=𝑁 = = 25,000,000𝐴= 74𝑑𝐵
𝑆𝑜 200𝑥10−6
𝑜 8𝑥10−12

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91
 (c) 𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =4
100,000,000
25,000,000

𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 10log4 = 6𝑑𝐵

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS/ ECM412

92