Module 1

Power Supplies–
Block diagram, Half-wave rectifier, Full-wave rectifiers and
filters, Voltage regulators, Output resistance and voltage
regulation, Voltage multipliers.
Amplifiers–
CE amplifier with and without feedback, Multi-stage amplifier;
BJT as a switch: Cut-off and saturation modes.(Text 1)
TEXT:
[Link] Tooley, ‘Electronic Circuits, Fundamentals & Applications’,4 th Edition,
Elsevier, 2015. DOI [Link] eBook
ISBN9781315737980 2nd.
 Power Supplies
 Circuit which clamps input waveform to the required level.
 Power supplies are circuit which produces constant DC
output from AC source.
 Power Supply circuit employs Rectifier, filter and voltage
regulator as shown to convert alternating signal to direct
signal.
 Power Supplies Contd..
• High Voltage AC supply is converted to low voltage AC supply
using Step-down transformer.
- Iron Core Step down transformer with appropriate Turns
ratio can be used.
• This low voltage AC is converted to Pulsating DC voltage
using diode Rectifier.
 Half wave / Full wave Rectifiers are used as
rectifiers.
• The pulsating DC is smoothened using filter circuit or
reservoir capacitor.
 High value reservoir capacitors are used.
• The filtered signal is further smoothened using Voltage
regulator.
 Zener Diode or IC voltage regulators are used.
 Diode Rectifier
• Semiconductor Diodes are used to convert alternating
current (AC) to direct current (DC).

• Two types Rectifiers-i) Half wave rectifier

ii) Full wave Rectifier
 Half wave Rectifier

• The simplest form of rectifier circuit makes use of a single

diode and, since it operates on only either positive or
negative half-cycles of the supply, it is known as a half-wave
rectifier.

Fig. 12 Half Rectifier and associated waveform

• The mains voltage (220 to 240 V) is applied to the primary of a
step- down transformer (T1).
• The secondary of T1 steps down the 240 V r.m.s. to 12 V r.m.s.
• During positive half cycle, the diode D1 is forward biased and
acts as a closed, thus diode allows the current flows through
the load RL and voltage is developed across it.
• During negative half cycle, the diode D1 is
reverse biased and acts as an open switch, thus
there will be no flow of current through the load
RL, thereby the output voltage is zero.
• The input and output voltage waveform of a half-
wave rectifier is shown as
• The relation between turns ratio and voltage of the
primary and secondary of the transformer is given by:

• The peak voltage output from the transformer’s

secondary winding will be given by:
 Problems
• A mains transformer having a turns ratio of 44:1 is connected
to a 220 V r.m.s. mains supply. If the secondary output is
applied to a half-wave rectifier,determine the peak voltage
that will appear across a load.
Solution:
• The r.m.s. secondary voltage will be given by:

• The peak voltage developed after rectification will be given

by:

• Assuming that the diode is a silicon device with a forward

voltage drop of V𝛾 =0.6V, the actual peak voltage dropped
across the load will be:
 Half wave Rectifier with Filter
• The capacitor, C1, has been added to ensure that the output
voltage remains at, or near, the peak voltage even when the
diode is not conducting.

• The capacitor, C1, has been added to ensure that the output
voltage remains at, or near, the peak voltage even when the
diode is not conducting
• When the primary voltage is first applied to T1, the first
positive half_x0002_cycle output from the secondary will
charge C1 to the peak value seen across RL.
• Hence C1 charges to 16.3 V at the peak of the positive half-
cycle.
• Because C1 and RL are in parallel, the voltage across RL will
be the same as that across C1.
 Full wave Rectifier
• Unfortunately, the half-wave rectifier circuit is relatively
inefficient as conduction takes place only on alternate half-
cycles.
• A better rectifier arrangement would make use of both
positive and negative half-cycles. These full-wave rectifier
circuits offer a considerable improvement over their half-wave
counterparts.
• They are not only more efficient but are significantly less
demanding interms of the reservoir and smoothing
components.
• There are two basic forms of full wave rectifier:
i) Bi-phase rectifier
ii) Bridge rectifier
Bi-phase rectifier circuits
• Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the primary of the step-
down transformer (T1) which has two identical secondary
windings, each providing 12 V r.m.s. (the turns ratio of T1 will
thus be 240/12 or 20:1 for each secondary winding).
• On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to
point B. Similarly, point B will be positive with respect to point
C. In this condition D1 will allow conduction (its anode will be
positive with respect to its cathode) while D2 will not allow
conduction (its anode will be negative with respect to its
cathode). Thus D1 alone conducts on positive half-cycles.
• On negative half-cycles, point C will be positive with respect
to point B. Similarly, point B will be positive with respect to
point A. In this condition D2 will allow conduction (its anode
will be positive with respect to its cathode) while D1 will not
allow conduction (its anode will be negative with respect to
its cathode). Thus D2 alone conducts on negative half-cycles.
 Full wave Rectifier with Filter:
• This component operates in exactly the same way as for the
half-wave circuit, i.e. it charges to approximately 16.3 V at
the peak of the positive half-cycle and holds the voltage at
this level when the diodes are in theirnon-conducting
states.
 ii) Bridge rectifier circuits
• An alternative to the use of the bi-phase circuit is that of using
a four-diode bridge rectifier.
• Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the primary of a step-
down transformer (T1). The secondary winding provides 12 V
r.m.s. (approximately 17 V peak) and has a turns ratio of 20:1,
as before.
• On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect
to point [Link] this condition D1 and D2 will allow conduction
while D3 and D4 will not allow conduction.
• On negative half-cycles, point B will be positive with respect
to point [Link] this condition D3 and D4 will allow conduction
while D1 and D2 willnot allow conduction.
 Bridge rectifier with filters:
• Here, a reservoir capacitor (C1) can be added to maintain the
output voltage when the diodes are not conducting.
• This component operates in exactly the same
way as for the bi-phase circuit, i.e. it charges
to approximately 16.3 V at the peak of the
positive half-cycle and holds the voltage at this
level when the diodes are in their non-
conducting states.
 Voltage regulators
• Voltage regulator is a circuit that maintains a constant d.c
output voltage irrespective of variations in the input line
voltage or in the load.
• Voltage regulator is one of the important application of a
Zener diode.
• RS is included to limit the zener current to a safe value when
the load is disconnected.
• When a load (RL) is connected, the zener current (IZ) will fall as
current is diverted into the load resistance (it is usual to allow
a minimum current of 2 mA to 5 mA in order to ensure that
the diode regulates).
• The output voltage (VZ) will remain at the Zener voltage until
regulation fails at the point at which the potential divider
formed by RS and RL produces a lower output voltage that is
less than VZ.
• The ratio of RS to RL is thus important.
• Regulated output VZ is given by:

• where VIN is the unregulated input voltage.

• Thus the maximum value for RS can be calculated from:

• The power dissipated in the zener diode will be given by

PZ = IZ × VZ, hence the minimum value for RS can be determined
from the off-load condition when:

where PZ max. is the maximum rated power dissipation for the

zener diode.
 Problem
• A 5 V zener diode has a maximum rated power
dissipation of 500 mW. If the diode is to be used in a
simple regulator circuit to supply a regulated 5 V to a load
having a resistance of 400 Ω, determine a suitable value of
series resistor for operation in conjunction with a supply
of 9 V.
Hence suitable value for RS would be 150Ω (roughly midway between two
extreams)
 Output resistance and voltage regulation
• In a perfect power supply, the output voltage would
remain constant regardless of the current taken by the
load.
• Output resistance Rout is defined as the change in output
voltage divided by the corresponding change in output
current and hence is given by

• Where △ Iout represents a small change in output (load)

current and △Vout represents a corresponding small
change in output voltage.
• The regulation of a power supply is given by the relationship:

• Ideally, the value of regulation should be very small.

• Simple shunt zener diode regulators of the type shown in Fig.
are capable of producing values of regulation of 5% to 10%.
• More sophisticated circuits based on discrete components
produce values of between 1% and 5% and integrated circuit
regulators often provide values of 1% or less.
 Problem
• The following data were obtained during a test carried out on
a d.c. power supply:
(i) Load test:
Output voltage (no-load) = 12 V
Output voltage (2 A load current) = 11.5 V
(ii) Regulation test:
Output voltage (mains input, 220 V) = 12 V
Output voltage (mains input, 200 V) = 11.9 V
Determine (a) the equivalent output resistance of the power supply
and (b) the regulation of the power supply.
 Voltage multipliers
• Voltage multiplier is a modified capacitor filter
circuit that delivers a dc voltage twice or
more times of the peak value(amplitude) of
the input ac voltage.
 Applications
1. Voltage multipliers are used for high-voltage and low-current
devices such as cathode-ray tubes (the picture tubes in TV
receivers, oscilloscopes and computer display).
2. Voltage multipliers can still be found in modern TVs,
photocopiers, and bug zappers.
3. High voltage multipliers are used in spray painting equipment,
most commonly found in automotive manufacturing facilities.
This helps reduce the volume of paint used and helps in
spreading an even coat of paint.
• By adding a second diode and capacitor, the output of the
simple half wave rectifier can be increased.

• In this arrangement C1 will charge to the positive peak

secondary voltage while C2 will charge to the negative peak
secondary voltage.
• Since the output is taken from C1 and C2 connected in series
the resulting output voltage is twice that produced by one
diode alone.
Voltage Multipliers

Half wave Voltage Doubler

• Here C1 charges to positive peak secondary voltage while C2 and C3
charge to twice the positive peak secondary voltage.
• The result is that the output voltage is the sum of voltage across C1 and
C3 which is three times the voltage that would be produced by a single
diode.
• The voltage doubler can be extended to produce higher
voltages using the cascade arrangement.

• Here C1 charges to the positive peak secondary voltage, while

C2 and C3 charge to twice the positive peak secondary
voltage.
• The result is that the output voltage is the sum of the voltages
across C1 and C3 which is three times the voltage that would
be produced by a single diode.
 Amplifiers
An amplifier is an electronic device that increases the voltage, current, or
power of a signal. Amplifiers are used in wireless communications and
broadcasting, and in audio equipment of all kinds.
Types of Amplifiers:
The following are the types of amplifiers:
1. A.C. coupled amplifiers:
In a.c. coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way that
d.c. levels are isolated and only the a.c. components of a signal are
transferred from stage to stage.

2. D.C. coupled amplifiers:

In d.c. (or direct) coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such
a way that stages are not isolated to d.c. potentials. Both a.c. and d.c. signal
components are transferred from stage to stage.
3. Large-signal amplifiers
Large-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for appreciable voltage
and/or current levels (typically from 1 V to 100 V or more).

4. Small-signal amplifiers:
Small-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for low-level signals
(normally less than 1 V and often much smaller). Small-signal amplifiers have
to be specially designed to combat the effects of noise.

5. Audio frequency amplifiers

Audio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is
normally associated with audio signals (e.g. 20 Hz to 20 kHz).

6. Wideband amplifiers
Wideband amplifiers are capable of amplifying a very wide range of
frequencies, typically from a few tens of hertz to several megahertz.
7. Radio frequency amplifiers:
Radio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of
frequencies that is normally associated with radio signals (e.g.
from 100 kHz to over 1 GHz).

8. Low-noise amplifiers:
Low-noise amplifiers are designed so that they contribute
negligible noise (signal disturbance) to the signal being
amplified. These amplifiers are usually designed for use with
very small signal levels (usually less than 10 mV or so).
 Gain
• One of the most important parameters of an amplifier is the
amount of amplification or gain that it provides.
• Gain is simply the ratio of output voltage to input voltage,
output current to input current, or output power to input
power.
• These three ratios give, respectively the voltage gain, current
gain and power gain. Thus,
• Note that, since power is the product of current and
voltage (P = I * V), we can infer that:
 Problem
• An amplifier produces an output voltage of 2 V
for an input of 50 mV. If the input and output
currents in this condition are, respectively, 4
mA and 200 mA, determine: (a) the voltage
gain; (b) the current gain;(c) the power gain.
 Solution
(a) The voltage gain is calculated from:

(b) The current gain is calculated from:

(c) The power gain is calculated from:

• Note that the same result is obtained from:
Input and Output Resistance

Input Resistance, Rin =Vin /Iin

Output resistance, Rout =Vout /Iout

 Frequency Response and Bandwidth

• The frequency response characteristics for

various types of amplifier are shown below.
• The frequency response of an amplifier is
usually specified in terms of upper and lower
cut off frequency of the amplifier.
• These frequencies are those at which the
output power has dropped to 50% (also
known as -3dB points) or where the voltage
gain has dropped to 70.7% of its mid-band
value.
Frequency Response and Bandwidth

Av(mid)=Mid band Gain

fc1=Lower Cut off frequency fc2=Upper Cut off frequency

Bandwidth=fc2-fc1
 BANDWIDTH
• Bandwidth of an amplifiers is taken as difference between upper
and lower cut off frequency.(fu-fl)
• The bandwidth of an amplifier should be able to accommodate the
range of frequencies present in the signal.
• Many signal contain harmonic components (i.e, signals at 2f, 3f,4f,
etc where f is the frequency of fundamental signal).
• To reproduce a square wave, for example an amplifier requires a
wide bandwidth, but it is not possible to perfectly reproduce such a
wave because a square wave comprises of an infinite series of
hormonics.
 Phase Shift
• Phase Shift is the phase angle between the
input and output signal voltages measured in
degrees.
• Also, the conventional single-stage transistor
amplifiers provide phase shifts of either 180⁰
or 360⁰.
 Negative Feedback
• Many practical amplifiers use negative feedback in order to precisely control
the gain, reduce distortion and improve bandwidth.
• The gain can be reduced to a manageable value of feeding back a small
proportion of the output.
• The amount of feedback determines the overall (or closed-loop) gain.
• Because this form of feedback has the effect of reducing the overall gain of the
circuit, this form of feedback is known as negative feedback.
• An alternating form of feedback, where the output is fed back in such a way as
to reniforce (strengthen) the input signal is known as positive feedback.
• In the negative feedback circuit, the proportion of the output voltage fed back
to the input is given by β and the overall voltage gain will be,

Gain = Vout/Vin
Negative feedback Amplifier

Amplifier with Negative Feedback

Multistage Amplifiers
 Multistage Amplifiers
• In order to provide sufficiently large values of gain, it is frequently
necessary to use a number of interconnected stages within an
amplifier.
• The overall gain of an amplifier with several stages (i.e a multi-stage
amplifier) is sim[ply the product of the individual voltage gains.
Hence,
Av = Av1*Av2*Av3 etc
• However, bandwidth of multi-stage amplifier will be less than the
bandwidth of each individual stage.
• In other words, an increse in gain results in decrease of a
bandwidth.
• Signals can be coupled between the individual stages of a multi-
stage amplifier by using different methods.
 RC Coupled Amplifier
• In this method, the stages are coupled together using
capacitors having a low reactance at the signal
frequency and resistor.
 L-C Coupling Method
• In this method, the inductors have a high reactance at the
signal frequency. This type of coupling is generally used in
RF and high frequency amplifiers.
Transformer Coupling
Direct Coupling Method
Module 2
 Operational Amplifier
OP-AMP is a direct coupled, multistage voltage amplifier with an
extremely high gain, high input impedance and low output
Impedance
Designed to perform mathematical operations such as addition,
subtraction, integration and differentiation etc

V-
i n ve r t i n g i n p u t
o utput
n o n i n ve r t i n g i n p u t

V+
 Op-Amp Parameters
Open loop Voltage Gain: Ratio of output voltage to input voltage
without feedback
AOL= Vo/Vin (typically very High)
Closed loop Voltage Gain: Ratio of output voltage to input voltage
with feedback
ACL= Vo/Vin (Very Low)
Input Resistance: Ratio of Input Voltage to input current
RIN= Vin/Iin (Very High in MΩ range)
Output Resistance: Ratio of open circuit output voltage to open
circuit output current
Rout= Vo (oc)/ Io (sc)
Input offset Voltage: The voltage that must be applied
differentially to the operational amplifier input in order to make the
output voltage exactly zero is known as the input offset voltage.
(typically 1mv -15mv)
Full Power Bandwidhth: The full-power bandwidth for an operational
amplifier is equivalent to the frequency at which the maximum
undistorted peak output voltage swing falls to 0.707 of its low-frequency
(d.c.) value.
Slew rate: Rate of change of output voltage with time.
Slew rate=dVo/dt (Typically 0.2uV to 20uV)
 Op-Amp Characteristics
Desirable characteristics for Ideal op-amp are:
(a) The open-loop voltage gain should be very high (ideally infinite).

(b) The input resistance should be very high (ideally infinite).

(c) The output resistance should be very low (ideally zero).

(d) Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as possible.

(e) Slew rate should be as large as possible.

(f) Input offset should be as small as possible.

 Op-Amp Configurations
The three basic configurations for operational voltage amplifiers are:
 Inverting
 Non-inverting
 Differential amplifier.
 Op-Amp Configurations
• Since op-amp amplifies the difference between the two input signals, this
configuration is called the differential amplifier.
• Voltage drops across source resistance can be zero (Rin1& Rin2 are negligible
compared to Ri input resistance) V1= Vi1 and V2= Vi2; Vo= A (Vi1 - Vi2)
• Output voltage is equal to the voltage gain A times the difference between
the two input voltages.
• Polarity of the output voltage is dependent on the polarity of the input
difference voltage.

Vi1

Vi2
 Op-Amp Circuits
Voltage Follower:
• Unity Voltage gain circuit in which output voltage follows input
• This circuit is essential an inverting amplifier in which 100% of the output is
feedback to the input.
• The amplifier has an unity voltage gain, a very high input and output
resistance.
V0 = Vin
AV = 1
 Op-Amp Circuits
Differentiator:
• The basic operational amplifier differentiator circuit is the exact opposite to
that of the op- amp integrator circuit. Here, the positions of the capacitor
and resistor have been reversed.
• The capacitor C is connected to the input terminal of the inverting
amplifier while the feedback resistor R forms the negative feedback
element across the operational amplifier.
• This operational amplifier circuit performs the
mathematical operation of Differentiation that is it “produces a
voltage output which is directly proportional to the input voltage’s change
with respect to time”.
Integrator:
• The circuit in which the output voltage waveform is integral of the input
voltage waveform. It is called the integrator or the integration amplifier.
• Such a circuit is obtained by using a basic inverting amplifier
configuration if the feedback resistor Rf is replaced by a capacitor Cf.
• The output voltage ramp up or down according to the input.
Comparator:
• Since
• Comparator compares a known reference voltage with
input voltage Vin

Non inverting comparator

Summing amplifier: Comparator compares a known reference voltage with
input voltage Vin

Vout= -(V1+V2)
 Oscillators
• It is an electronic source of alternating current
or voltage having sine, square or sawtooth or
pulse shape.
 Oscillators
Positive feedback:
Here the output is fedback in such a way as to reniforce the input. Such
feedback are called positive feedback.

Positive feedback circuit

 Oscillators
Voltage Gain with feedback, Av=Vout/Vin
but Vout=A*Vi and Vin= Vi-Vf = Vi-β*Vout
= Vi- β*A*Vi
hence Av= [A*Vi]/Vi(1-A* β)
Av=A/(1-A*β)
When loop gain A*β=1 in denominator, gain Av=infinite
The condition is known as barkhausen criteria for
sustained oscillation.
Ladder Network Oscillator (RC Phase
shift)

3 Stage RC ladder Oscillator

Transistor is configured in Common Emitter (CE) configuration.
 Resistor R1 ,R2 provide biasing potential for transistor.
 Re and Ce provides emitter stabilization.
 Transistor amplifier provides 180 degree phase shift.
 Each RC network will give 60 degree phase shift.
 Effective phase shift of 3 stage RC is 180.
 The overall phase shift will be 360 degree (positive feedback).
 Amplifier gain will be set for 29 to compensate loss associated
with ladder network.
 Frequency of Oscillation, f = 1/2π RC√6
 Wein bridge Oscillator

 In wein bridge oscillator, RC network provides zero phase shift.

 Op amp is wired in non inverting mode and also does not
provide any phase shift.
 The gain of amplifier, Av=[1+R3/R4] ≥ 3
 Frequency of Oscillation, f= 1/2π RC when R1=R2=R & c1=C2=C
 Crystal Oscillator

 Crystal oscillator uses quartz crystal to produce sinusoidal

oscillation.
 Crystals are made up of piezo electric materials.
 Crystal oscillator provide more stable output oscillation in RF
range.
 Multivibrators
 Multivibrators are oscillator circuit which produces square/
rectangular output instead of sine wave.
 Multivibrators employ regenerative or positive feedback.
Three types of Multivibrators are:
i) Monostable Multivibrator-Produces single output pulse
ii) Astable Multivibrator-Produces free running oscillation
iii) Bi stable Multivibrator- has two stable states and requires
trigger pulse for operation.
Single stage Astable Oscillator

 The circuit employs positive feedback via R1 and R2.

 The charging and discharging voltage across capacitor is fed to
inverting input of Op-amp.
 Upper threshold Voltage Vut= + Vsat* (R2/R1+R2)
 Lower threshold Voltage Vlt= -Vsat * (R2/R1+R2)
 Inverting and non inverting voltages are compared and thus
output will be saturating voltages. (Square wave).
 By adjusting R3 (or C1), frequency of oscillation can be adjusted.
Suggested Activities Beyond Syllabus
 Quiz Activities in Google Class Room
 You tube and animation Videos on
Amplifiers ,Oscillators
Model Question Paper Questions
 1) Explain with block diagram power supply circuit.
 2) Describe the operation of Full wave bridge rectifier with
waveform.
 3) Discuss the operation of full wave centre tap rectifier with
waveform.
 4) Illustrate the voltage regulator operation using Zener diode.
 5) Explain various types of amplifiers.
 6) Explain Integrator and Summer circuit using op amp.
 7) Describe RC ladder oscillator circuit.
 8) Explain Wein bridge oscillator operation.
 9) Explain single stage astable oscillator circuit.
References
1. Mike Tooley, ‘Electronic Circuits,
Fundamentals & Applications’, 4th Edition,
Elsevier, 2015.
 2. D P kothari,I J Nagrath, ‘Basic Electronics,
2nd Edition, McGraw hill India ltd,2008