Second language learners and

language learning settings

Week Two

Associate Professor Margaret Kettle

CRICOS No. 00213J

Queensland University of Technology
 Historically-organised methods and approaches: A
selection (Davies & Pearse, 2000)
Approach/ Language Language Teaching
Method Learning
Grammar- Fixed system Intellectual Study of
Translation exercise-mental grammatical
Method development structures; L1 to
L2; L2 to L1
Direct Method Language as Focus on meaning Emphasis on
social rather than form authentic
practice; language; use of
functions L2; fluency
rather than
accuracy
Audiolingual Language as Habit-formation; no T as model;
Method structure and errors modelling,
rule-governed imitation, drilling

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 Historically-organised methods and approaches: A
selection (Davies & Pearse, 2000)
Approach/ Language Language Teaching
method Learning
Total Physical Language Language learned Modelling, action;
Response (TPR) associated with through action reduced stress
action (with beginners)

The Natural Language is Acquisition rather Focuses on

Approach social; for than learning; language in
communication learning is situations; no stress;
subconscious; techniques eclectic
Krashen’s work
Communicative Language is Long process of Eclectic; use of
Language meaningful and acquisition; relevant and
Teaching (CLT) developed in assisted by meaningful text;
interactions conscious eclectic methods
explication

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 Methods & roles

Method Teacher roles Learner roles

Audiolingualism - Language modeler - Pattern practiser

- Drill leader - Accuracy enthusiast

Total Physical - Commander - Order taker

Response (TPR) - Action-monitor - Performer

Task-based - Needs analyst - Improviser

teaching and - Task designer -Negotiator
learning (TBTL) - Modeller -Risk-taker
- Advisor -Language user

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
Reflecting on your own practice

Thinking back to Week One, can you identify

the key aspects which underpin your beliefs
about language and effective language
teaching?

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
Reflecting on another teacher’s practice

As you view this 10 minute excerpt from Bill’s

lesson, think about:
•the views of language and language learning
that seem to underpin Bill’s teaching
• the effectiveness of Bill’s teaching
• whether you would feel comfortable using Bill’s
activities, and why.

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 Bill’s lesson

[Link]

The link to an interview with Bill is also in the Week Two

folder.

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 Factors influencing teachers’ decision-making
(Burns & Knox, 2005)

Institutional Pedagogical

Exam pressure Previous lessons

Timetabling/time Student needs, skills/language
pressure ability
Course aims, syllabus Newness of student
Required materials Classroom decision-making
Course focus Student age
Preparation time T-S relationship

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 Factors influencing decision-making
(Burns & Knox, 2005)

Personal Physical

Language learning experiences Heat

Previous training as teacher Classroom size and
Teaching experience layout
Existing practices Room changes
Theories of teaching and Student movement in and
learning out of classroom
Personal lives and relationships Presence of researchers
in room

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 Ten Principles of Second Language teaching (Ellis,
2005)

Instruction needs to ensure that learners:

• develop a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions
and rule-based competence;
• focus predominantly on meaning;
• focus on form;
• develop implicit knowledge of the L2 while not
neglecting explicit knowledge;
• engage with their ‘built-in syllabus’;

10
real world
R
a university for the CRICOS No. 00213J
 Ten principles (Ellis, 2005)

• have extensive L2 input;

• have opportunities for output;
• interact in the L2;
• are recognised as having individual differences;
• are assessed on free as well as controlled production.

Let’s check all these terms and concepts before

we move on …

11
real world
R
a university for the CRICOS No. 00213J
 Contextual aspects
(Harmer, 2015; Horwitz, 2013; Murray & Christison, 2011)

Settings:
• Kindergartens, schools, language schools, face-to-face
and online learning environments
• ESL, EAL, EAD, EFL, ELF, ESP, EOP, LOTE,
• Mainstream, pull-out/withdrawal, co-teaching
• Monolingual, bilingual, translanguaging
• Curriculum types:
 Linguistic focused
 Subject matter based
 Learner-centred (e.g. AMEP)
 Learning- centred (e.g. competency-based design)

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 Learner characteristics
(Harmer, 2015; Horwitz, 2013 )

• Age: young learners, older learners (from 10

years), adults
• Learner differences: aptitude
• Language levels: beginner to advanced;
Common European Framework of Reference
(CEFR) levels
• Motivation
• Learner autonomy
• Learner styles: strategies, intelligences,
perceptual preferences (e.g. visual, auditory,
kinaesthetic)

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 Thinking about the first assignment

Try to identify the learning context and the learners who will
be the focus of your teaching sequence in the first
assignment.

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 Motivation
(Ushioda, 2013) I like learning
English
because I am
good at it.
• Pre-1990s: L2 motivation research focussed on
integrative and instrumental motivation; intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation
• Criticism that it provided little of use to teachers
• “Current discussions of L2 motivation foreground
concepts of self and identity… which have important
practical implications for motivation and interaction in
the social context of the classroom.” (p 76)
• Motivation is unstable: it tends to decline once the
initial novelty of learning a language is no longer
present.

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 Motivation
(Dornyei, 2001, cited in Ushioda, 2013, p. 79)

A framework for motivational L2 teaching

practice was developed by Dornyei (2001)
around the following phases:

• Creating the basic motivational conditions

• Generating initial motivation
• Maintaining and protecting motivation
• Encouraging positive retrospective self-
evaluation.

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 Learner Autonomy
(Harmer, 2015; Kumaravadivelu, 2003)

• Autonomy – learning to learn (strategic engagement,

learning to learn a language is a goal in itself)

• Autonomy is not:
• independence – learners have to learn to cooperate with
teachers, peers, the education system;
• context-free – the extent to which autonomy is possible
depends on factors such as learners’ personality, motivation,
learning needs & wants, and the education environment in which
they find themselves;
• a steady state achieved by learners – it is likely to fluctuate with
learners more autonomous in some situations than in others.

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 Learner autonomy is a matter of helping
learners to…

• develop a capacity for critical thinking, decision making, and

independent action;
• discover their learning potential;
• take responsibility for learning and for using appropriate
strategies to achieve their general and specific objectives;
• face heavy psychological demands that require learners to
confront their weaknesses and failures;
• develop self-control and self-discipline;
• understand that autonomy is a complex process of interacting
with one’s self, the teacher, the task, and the educational
environment.

(Kumaravadivelu, 2003, p.133).

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 Learning strategies
These are “procedures that facilitate a learning task”
(Chamot 2005, p. 112);

Learning strategies associated with the learning

becoming an autonomous and self-regulated learner
(e.g. Chamot & O'Malley, 1994).

“the conscious and semi-conscious thoughts and

behaviours used by learners with the explicit goal of
improving their knowledge and understanding of a target
language” (Cohen, 2003, p.280).

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
Learning strategies (Chamot & O’Malley (1994)
• Metacognitive strategies
planning, monitoring and evaluating own
learning.
• Cognitive strategies
engaging with language and meaning of the text
e.g. memorising, summarising and applying
• Social/Affective strategies
social and affective strategies to manage the
social and emotional process of learning e.g.
seeking help from others, controlling nervousness
when speaking L2, self-talk.

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
Communication Strategies in NS and NNS talk
(Tarone, 1977)

I Iddoon’t kno
• Paraphrase n’t knowwwwhat it’s
ccaalllled in E hat
ed in Enngglilish. Yito’s
• Approximation kknnoow, you sh. ouu
w, youuusseeit to Y
• Word coinage wwitithh; the th it toeat
; the thininggwith theat
y ou ppooininty end with e
HHoowwddoo yoiun • Circumlocution ty endss; ;yyoou dig the
t er ththeefood w u dig
ssaayyEEaasster in • Transfer food witithhitit.
yyoouurr .
e? • Literal translation
lalanngguuaagge?
• Language switch
• Appeal for assistance
• Mime
• Avoidance
• Topic avoidance
• Message abandonment

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 Processes in strategy instruction by teachers
(Harris & Grenfell, 2004)

a) ‘Awareness raising’ of the strategies the learners are

already using.
b) ‘Modelling’ of new strategies by the teacher and
'persuasion' of the value of expanding one's repertoire of
strategies.
c) ‘General practice’ of new strategies through whole class,
pair and group work.
d) ‘Action planning’: Identifying personal difficulties or goals
and the most useful strategies to address them.
e) ‘Focused practice’ and fading out of reminders: Gradual
withdrawal of the scaffolding to the point that learners are
able to select and operationalise appropriate strategies for
themselves.
f) Evaluating strategy acquisition and learning: Reviewing
progress and identifying new goals.
real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 Reflect and discuss
Questions from Horwitz (2013, p. 20)

• Which learner characteristics do you think are most

important in successful second language learning?
• Do you think that different characteristics are helpful in
different language learning settings?
• How can you encourage your students’ motivation for
language learning?
• In what ways do you think your students’ beliefs about
language learning will be compatible or incompatible with
your own ideas about language teaching?

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J
 References
Burns, A. & Knox, J. (2005). Realisation(s): Systemic-functional linguistics and the language
classroom. In N. Bartels (Ed.). Applied Linguistics and Language Teacher Education.
New York: Springer.
Chamot, A. U. (2005). Language learning strategy instruction: Current issues and research.
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 25, 112-130.
Chamot, A., & O'Malley, M. (1994). Language learner and learning strategies. In N. C. Ellis
(Ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages (pp. 371-392). San Diego: Academic
Press.
Cohen, A. D. (2003). The learner’s side of foreign language learning: Where do styles,
strategies and tasks meet? International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language
Teaching 41(4): 279-291.
Ellis, R. (2005). Principles of instructed language learning. System 33, 209-224.
Harmer, J. (2015). The Practice of English Language Teaching. (5th Edn). Pearson
Longman
Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching. (4th Edn). Pearson
Longman.
Harris, V. & Grenfell. M. (2004). Language-learning strategies: A case for cross-curricular
collaboration. Language Awareness 13(2): 116-130.

24
real world
R
a university for the CRICOS No. 00213J
 References
Kramsch, C. (2000). Second language acquisition, applied linguistics, and the teaching
of foreign languages. The Modern Language Journal 84(3), 311-326.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003). Conceptualizing teaching acts. Beyond Methods:
Macrostrategies for Language Teaching. (pp. 5-22). New Haven: Yale University
Press.
Murray, D.E. & Christison, M.A. (2011). Planning curriculum. In D. E. Murray & M. A.
Christison, What English language teachers need to know Volume II: Facilitating
learning (pp. 3-17). New York: Routledge.
Smith, R. C. (2003). Pedagogy for autonomy as (becoming-)appropriate methodology. In
D. Palfreyman & R. C. Smith. Learner Autonomy Across cultures. (pp. 129-146).
Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan.
Tarone, E. (1977). Conscious communication strategies in interlanguage: A progress
report. In H. Brown, C. Yorio, & R. Crymes (Eds.). On TESOL ’77. (pp. 194-203).
TESOL Washington , DC.
Ushioda, E. (2013). Motivation. In A. Burns & J.C. Richards (Eds.) The Cambridge
Guide to Pedagogy and Practice in Second Language Teaching. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

real
R
a university for the world CRICOS No. 00213J