Chapter 10:

System Architecture
Learning outcomes
Provide a checklist of issues to consider when selecting a system architecture

Trace the evolution of system architecture from mainframes to current designs

Explain client/server architecture

Describe the impact of the Internet of system architecture

Compare in-house e-commerce development with packaged solutions and service
providers
Explain online and batch processing

Describe network devices, including routers, gateways, and proxy servers

Describe wireless networking, including wireless standards, topologies, and trends

Explain the final activities in the system design phase

Architecture checklist
System architecture translate the logical design of an information system into a physical structure that
includes hardware, software, network support, processing methods, and security.
The end product of system design is the system design specification document.
There are several issues that affect the architecture choice:
1, Corporate Organisation and Culture – every subdivision or decentralised/centralised part of an
organisation operates differently or has different culture to its counterpart. Ex: TUT PTA vs TUT Soh during
a strike or load shedding – how they act differently is due to their culture. The best approach would be to
study the day to day operations, talk to the various users at all levels and focus on operational feasibility
issues.
2. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)- companies like TUT uses ERP to standardise the platform
(hardware and software which ensures connectivity and easy integration of future systems) of its IT.
Example: ITS or bright space. Also extend internal ERP to customers/suppliers (Supply chain management
SCM).

3. Initial cost and Total cost to organisation (TCO) – TCO has hard costs like tangible purchases, fees
and contracts. Soft costs of management, support, training and downtimes are hard to measure but just as
important.
There are several issues that affect the architecture choice

4, Scalability/ Extensibility – Refers to a system's ability to expand, change or downsize to meet the
changing needs of the organisation.
 Network has several nodes (represents a physical device, wired or wireless, that can send, receive or
manage network data).
 Scalability is focus on volume driven, meaning can it handle large volumes of traffic?
5, Web integration – Information systems have applications, which handle input, manages processing
logic and provide output. Will these application be part of the e-commerce strategy and the degree of
integration with other-web related components? If its on the web it can run on the
internet/intranet/extranet.
6. Legacy systems – older systems that use outdated technology but are still functional. To change over,
is expensive – conversion of data, middleware, integration OR do they live side by side?
7. Processing Options – Process data online or in batches? Volume? If online, it must have backup and
recovery.
8. Security issues –Think of security issues and how to address them. Web-base systems require more
security.
9. Corporate Portals – Portal is an entrance to a multifunction website. Corporate portal gives access to
customers, suppliers and the public. TUT website – staff portal
Evolution of system architecture
Every business information system must carry out three main functions (3 layers):
1. Manage applications that perform the processing logic (processing logic)
2. Handle data storage and access (database admin)
3. Provide an interface that allows users to interact with the system (view/boundary)
These can be done on a server/ client/ divided between the two.
MAINFRAME architecture
• Server supplies data, processing services or other services to one or more clients.
• Mainframe architecture – server performed all processes. In other words this server is stronger than the client.
• Data processing centre - all data input and output performed centrally. Users had no input/output capabilities.
Later on terminals were put decentralised to give access but processing was still limited.
• Still in use by large businesses like Banks.

IMPACT OF PC
 Stand-alone computer – users could run their own processing, spreadsheets and database applications without
assistance.
 Did improve employee productivity and allowed to perform tasks that actually needed IT dep assistance but is too
expensive and inefficient (security, integrity and consistency, backup, support)
Evolution of system architecture
NETWORK evolution
• Local area networks (LAN)- client could share data and hardware resources.
• Started to use satellite links, high speed fiber- optic lines or the internet to share data.
• WAN (Wide area network) spans long distances that connects LAN’s together. Network becomes
transparent because users can see the data as if its on their machines.
• Distributed system – company-wide system that connect one or more LAN or WAN ( it depends on the
power and capability of the underlying data communication network). Security is a big issue, so many
clients need access to perform processing.
CLIENT/SERVER architecture
 Distributed computing strategy that must span the entire enterprise.
 Client handles entire user interface, including data entry, data query and screen presentation logic
 Server stores the data and provides data access and DBM functions.
 Application logic is divided between client and server.
 Today client/server most popular, using internet protocols and network models.
 Debatable if cloud computing is part of client/server or completely new.
Evolution of system architecture
CLIENT’s role
• Fat/thick client – locates all or most processing logic at the client. Popular option, have management issues
and high TCO.
• Thin client/net-centric computing – processing located at server

CLIENT/SERVER Tiers
 There was the 2 tier (client – all user interfaces and server has all data, application logic run on either one)
 Now 3 tier / n-tier design – client has interface, server has data but application logic in the middle
(processes client request, translate them into data access commands that can be understood and carried
out by server). It is called application server / logic / business logic.
 Enhances overall performance by reducing data server workload and relieves client from complex processing tasks
 More efficient and cost-effective
 Layers communicate using middleware

MIDDLEWARE
 Glueware – used to connect two or more software components in a federated system.
 It also combines legacy systems and web-based / cloud-based applications
 It’s the / between client/server
Evolution of system architecture
COST-BENEFIT Issues
• Most companies needs to be scalable, powerful and flexible, client/server offers this. Its easier to change the number
of clients and their processing power than it is to change a large-scale central server.
• Also sometimes moving heavy processing to the cloud.
• Using common languages like SQL, client and servers can communicate across multiple platforms.
• Lastly client/server influences network load and improve response times.

PERFORMANCE issues
◦ Centralised server is faster than client/server, requests and data travel on an internal bus network and is
processed by it own CPU. Whereas, client/server separates it application from its data, thus taking longer.
◦ Client/server has a ”knee of the curve” (sharp decline in system speed and efficiency) where the response
times increase because the request increases until it reaches capacity.
◦ Data can also be stored at different places – Distributed Database Management system.
◦ Advantages: data stored closer to user reduces network traffic, system is scalable meaning new data sites can be added
without reworking the system design and with data stored at different sites, system is less likely to experience cataphoric
failure.
◦ Disadvantages: security – more difficult to maintain controls and standards when store everywhere, the architecture is
more complex and difficult to manage.
◦ Centralised means more control vs decentralised which is more flexible.
Impact of the Internet
Internet-based Architecture
◦ Internet-based architecture has data and application AND now interface provided by web server in the form of HTML documents
that are displayed in client’s browser.
◦ This simplifies data transmission and results in lower hardware cost and complexity.
◦ Advantages – changes fundamental design ideas and moving towards online environment and people use online to do everything.

Cloud Computing
◦ A cloud of remote computers that provide a total online software and data environment that is hosted by third parties. Acts like
one giant computer doing everything for users.
◦ No software updates or system maintenance is required for the user.
◦ As demand increases so does the number of cloud servers, therefore scaling on demand.
◦ Its like prepared electricity, you pay in advance month by month. However service providers can make changes and updates
without involving users.
◦ Concerns: Require more Bandwidth (amount of data that can be transferred in a fixed period of time), if user doesn’t have
internet, he/she cant access the services, security issues about transferring data and storing the data and last control, handing
control of crucial processes to another party that could be in a different country.
Web 2.0
◦ It’s a second generation of web that will allow users to collaborate, interact and share information more dynamically.
◦ Web 3.0 / semantic web – documents have semantics (meaning) and not just syntax (HTML markups)
◦ Example is wiki, like Wikipedia but its smaller apps, like businesses and schools who want to compile and share information.
◦ Web 2.0 is to enhance creativity, interaction and shared ideas. It resembles Agile development process and open-source software
movement.
 E-commerce Architecture
In-house development Package solution Service providers
Requires greater initial cost but provides Turnkey systems Application service provider (ASP)
greater flexibility.

More freedom to integrate with customers & Large scale business that need to Charging a subscription fee /usage fee
suppliers and less dependant on vendor- integrate their systems – this is less
specific solutions. attractive

Benefits: Could be a solution if don’t know where

to start, rely on other experience
software
Unique website- more inline with
company
Complete control

Scalability to handle increases

More flexibility to modify site

To integrate web-based system with

other systems

However, very expensive for small,

medium size enterprises (SMSE)
Processing methods
Online processing Batch processing
Handles transactions when and where they occur and provides Can be efficient and convenient in some situations
output directly to users.
Avoids delays Example: Salaries, daily credit card transaction updates

Allows constant dialog between users and system Advantages

Examples: ATM and Airline tickets Tasks can be planned and run on a predetermined schedule,
without user involvement
4 Characteristics: Batch programs that require major network resources can run
when costs and impact on other traffic will be lowest
System processes transaction completely when and where Batch method suited to address security, audit and privacy
they occur concerns, because it runs in a relatively controlled
environment
Users interact directly with the IS

Users can access data randomly

IS available whenever necessary to support business functions

These two can be combined and can work well together.

Network models
1. OSI model (open system interconnection) – describes how data moves from an application to one
computer to an application on another network computer. Consists of 7 layer, each layers performs a
specific function. OSI provides physical design standard that assure seamless network connectivity,
regardless of specific hardware environment.
2. Network topology – the way network is configured. Topology means physical or logical view.
◦ Physical is the actual network cabling and connections

◦ Logic is how the components interact.

◦ How it is physically arrange doesn’t always mean it is that topology.

3. Hierarchical Network – one or more powerful servers control the entire network.
◦ Departmental servers control lower levels of processing and network servers.

◦ It mirrors the actual operational flow in the organisation

◦ Disadvantage- if another processing level is added, the network

becomes more complex and expensive to operate and maintain.

◦ Was used in traditional mainframe-based systems but is less common today.

Network models
4. Bus Network
◦ Single communication path connects the central server, departmental servers, workstations and peripheral devices.

◦ Information is transmitted in either direction. All messages travel over same central bus.

◦ Requires less cabling. Devices can attach or detached at any point without distributing the rest.

◦ Failure at one workstation doesn’t influence the rest.

◦ Disadvantages – if central server becomes damaged or defective, the whole network shuts down. If more users and devices
join the overall performance declines because they all use the same central server

◦ It is no more popular but some of its aspects are in the other topologies and some companies kept the bus so that they don’t
have to rewire.
Network models
5. Ring network
◦ They are outdated.

◦ Resembles a circle where the data flows in only one direction from one device to the next. Like the bus but with connected ends.

◦ Disadvantage – if one device fails, the devices downstream from the failed device cannot communicate on the network.

6. Star Network
◦ Has a central networking device called a switch, which manages the network and acts a communication conduit for all network traffic.

◦ It was called a hub but now a switch offers advanced technology and better performance.

◦ Switch sends traffic to only the specific network device that needs to receive the data.

◦ High degree of network control as it manages the traffic flow.

◦ Disadvantage is the entire network is dependent of the switch, however there are backup switches immediately available in case of failure.
Network models
7. Mesh network
◦ Each node connects to every other node.

◦ Design is reliable butt extremely expensive to install and maintain.

◦ Resembles the Internet, a message can travel over more than one path

◦ Advantage is redundancy (backup if communication problems arise or some nodes become inoperable).

Network devices
◦ LAN’s and WAN’s connected through routers. A router is a device that connects network segments, determines the
most efficient path, and guides the flow of data.
◦ Gateway – where any network topology can connect to a larger, dissimilar network like the internet.

◦ Proxy server provides Internet connectivity for internal LAN users

Wireless Networks
Wireless local area network (WLAN) is relatively inexpensive to install and is well suited to workgroups
and users who are not anchored to a specific desk or location. (laptops and smart devices like phones)
1. Standards
1. IEEE 802,11 (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
2. Used to improve bandwidth, range and security.
3. Changes rapidly and constantly due to pressure from consumer groups and industry leaders.
4. Speed is measured in Mbps (mega bits per second) or Gbps (gigabits per second)
5. If capacity continues to expand, so does security issues.

2. Topologies
1. Basic sever set (BSS) /infrastructure mode – central wireless device is called access points/wireless access
points (WAP), is used to service all wireless clients. Similar to a hub in star, except it is for wireless clients.
2. Extended server set (ESS), made up of two or more BSS, wireless access is now expanded over a larger area,
roaming is when a user moves from one access point to another, thus undisrupted service.

3. Trends
1. There is group called Wi-Fi Alliance that certifies interoperability of wireless network products with the IEEE
802.11 standard. They make sure the devices are wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi) compatible.
2. Disadvantages – frequency could be interrupted by other devices like a microwave AND security is a concern
(more susceptible to interceptions and intrusions)
3. Bluetooth – short-distance wireless communication that does not require high power.
System Design completion
Final activity of system design is:
1. System Design specification
1. It is a document that presents the complete design for the new information system, along with
detailed costs, staffing and scheduling for completing the next phase (system implementation).
2. Typically has: a cover page, detailed table of content and index.
1. Management summary – brief overview of the project. Outlines: development effort to date, current
status report, summarises project costs, reviews benefits, present implementation schedule,
highlights any issues management needs to address.
2. System components – complete design, with user interface, outputs, inputs, files, databases,
network specifications, source documents, DFD, reports, screen layouts, backup, recovery, start-up
processes and file retention. If software is purchased, then interface information is needed for
between package and system developed. If CASE tools are used, then design diagrams and other
documentation.
3. System environment – constraints or conditions affecting the system, including requirements,
hardware, software and security.
4. Implementation requirements – start up process, initial data entry or acquisition, user training and
software test plans
5. Time and cost estimates – detailed schedules, cost estimates and staffing requirements for
development phase and revised projections for the remainder of the SDLC. Total cost to date for the
project and a comparison of those costs with estimates.
6. Additional material – Like documents from earlier phases.
System Design completion
Final activity of system design is:
2. User Approval
◦ User approval should be done throughout the whole SDLC and not left at the end, it keeps the users involved and provides
feedback about the project is on track or not.

◦ Other members like the IT management, developers, system analysts will also want to be involved as each has a role to play
in the SDLC.

◦ System design specification must be sent to all including organisation management for review and input before it is officially
presented.

3. Presentation
Several presentations to explain the system, answer questions, consider comments and secure final payment.

1st presentation to other SA, programmers, technical support staff – technical presentation

2nd presentation to department managers an users from departments affected by the system – purpose to obtain support and
approval, user interaction and management’s interest in the budget, schedules, staff and impact on production

Final presentation is delivered to management. Just like system analysis presentation, purpose is obtaining management
approval and support for implementation. Management must then decide proceed / perform additional work / terminate.
Conclusion
A checklist of issues to consider when selecting a system architecture is identified

The evolution of system architecture from mainframes to current designs is discussed

Client/server architecture is discussed

The impact of the Internet of system architecture is identified and discussed

In-house e-commerce development with packaged solutions and service providers is compared

Online and batch processing is compared

Network devices, including routers, gateways, and proxy servers are listed

Wireless networking, including wireless standards, topologies, and trends are listed

The final activities in the system design phase is outlined and discussed