Chapter 5

Link Layer and LANs

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5: DataLink Layer 5-1
Chapter 5: The Data Link
Layer
Our goals:
 understand principles behind data link layer
services:
 error detection, correction
 sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access
 link layer addressing
 reliable data transfer, flow control: done!
 instantiation and implementation of various
link layer technologies

5: DataLink Layer 5-2

Link Layer
 5.1 Introduction and  5.6 Hubs and switches
services  5.7 PPP
 5.2 Error detection  5.8 Link Virtualization:
and correction ATM and MPLS
 5.3Multiple access
protocols
 5.4 Link-Layer
Addressing
 5.5 Ethernet

5: DataLink Layer 5-3

 Link Layer: Introduction “link”
Some terminology:
 hosts and routers are nodes
 communication channels
that connect adjacent nodes
along communication path
are links
 wired links
 wireless links
 LANs
 layer-2 packet is a frame,
encapsulates datagram

data-link layer has responsibility of

transferring datagram from one node
to adjacent node over a link
5: DataLink Layer 5-4
Link layer: context
 Datagram transferred transportation analogy
 trip from Princeton to
by different link Lausanne
protocols over different  limo: Princeton to JFK
links:  plane: JFK to Geneva
 e.g., Ethernet on first  train: Geneva to Lausanne
link, frame relay on  tourist = datagram
intermediate links,
802.11 on last link  transport segment =
 Each link protocol communication link
 transportation mode =
provides different
services link layer protocol
 travel agent = routing
 e.g., may or may not
provide rdt over link algorithm

5: DataLink Layer 5-5

Link Layer Services
 Framing, link access:
 encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header,
trailer
 channel access if shared medium
 “MAC” addresses used in frame headers to identify
source, dest
• different from IP address!
 Reliable delivery between adjacent nodes
 we learned how to do this already (chapter 3)!
 seldom used on low bit error link (fiber, some twisted
pair)
 wireless links: high error rates

• Q: why both link-level and end-end reliability?

5: DataLink Layer 5-6
Link Layer Services (more)
 Flow Control:
 pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes
 Error Detection:
 errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
 receiver detects presence of errors:
• signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
 Error Correction:
 receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without
resorting to retransmission
 Half-duplex and full-duplex
 with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can
transmit, but not at same time
5: DataLink Layer 5-7
 Adaptors Communicating
datagram
link layer protocol rcving
sending node
node
frame frame
adapter adapter

 link layer implemented  receiving side

in “adaptor” (aka NIC)  looks for errors, rdt, flow
 Ethernet card, PCMCI card, control, etc
802.11 card  extracts datagram,
 sending side: passes to rcving node
 encapsulates datagram in
 adapter is semi-
a frame
 adds error checking bits,
autonomous
rdt, flow control, etc.  link & physical layers

5: DataLink Layer 5-8

Link Layer
 5.1 Introduction and  5.6 Hubs and switches
services  5.7 PPP
 5.2 Error detection  5.8 Link Virtualization:
and correction ATM
 5.3Multiple access
protocols
 5.4 Link-Layer
Addressing
 5.5 Ethernet

5: DataLink Layer 5-9

Error Detection
EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)
D = Data protected by error checking, may include header
fields

• Error detection not 100% reliable!

• protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
• larger EDC field yields better detection and correction

5: DataLink Layer 5-10

Parity Checking
Single Bit Parity: Two Dimensional Bit Parity:
Detect single bit Detect and correct single bit errors
errors

0 0

5: DataLink Layer 5-11

Internet checksum
Goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted
segment (note: used at transport layer only)

Sender: Receiver:
 compute checksum of
 treat segment contents
received segment
as sequence of 16-bit  check if computed checksum
integers equals checksum field value:
 checksum: addition (1’s  NO - error detected
complement sum) of  YES - no error detected.
segment contents But maybe errors
 sender puts checksum nonetheless? More later ….
value into UDP
checksum field

5: DataLink Layer 5-12

Checksumming: Cyclic Redundancy
Check
 view data bits, D, as a binary number
 choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), G
 goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that
 <D,R> exactly divisible by G (modulo 2)
 receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If non-zero
remainder: error detected!
 can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
 widely used in practice (ATM, HDLC)

5: DataLink Layer 5-13

CRC Example
Want:
D.2r XOR R = nG
equivalently:
D.2r = nG XOR R
equivalently:
if we divide D.2r by
G, want remainder
R

D.2r
R = remainder[ ]
G

5: DataLink Layer 5-14

Link Layer
 5.1 Introduction and  5.6 Hubs and switches
services  5.7 PPP
 5.2 Error detection  5.8 Link Virtualization:
and correction ATM
 5.3Multiple access
protocols
 5.4 Link-Layer
Addressing
 5.5 Ethernet

5: DataLink Layer 5-15

Multiple Access Links and Protocols
Two types of “links”:
 point-to-point
 PPP for dial-up access
 point-to-point link between Ethernet switch and host

 broadcast (shared wire or medium)

 Old-fashioned Ethernet
 upstream HFC
 802.11 wireless LAN

5: DataLink Layer 5-16

Multiple Access protocols
 single shared broadcast channel
 two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes:
interference
 collision if node receives two or more signals at the same
time
multiple access protocol
 distributed algorithm that determines how nodes
share channel, i.e., determine when node can
transmit
 communication about channel sharing must use
channel itself!
 no out-of-band channel for coordination

5: DataLink Layer 5-17

Ideal Multiple Access Protocol
Broadcast channel of rate R bps
1. When one node wants to transmit, it can send
at rate R.
2. When M nodes want to transmit, each can
send at average rate R/M
3. Fully decentralized:
 no special node to coordinate transmissions
 no synchronization of clocks, slots
4. Simple

5: DataLink Layer 5-18

MAC Protocols: a taxonomy
Three broad classes:
 Channel Partitioning
 divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots,
frequency, code)
 allocate piece to node for exclusive use
 Random Access
 channel not divided, allow collisions
 “recover” from collisions

 “Taking turns”
 Nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can
take longer turns

5: DataLink Layer 5-19

Channel Partitioning MAC protocols:
TDMA
TDMA: time division multiple access
 access to channel in "rounds"
 each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round
 unused slots go idle
 example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, slots 2,5,6 idle

 TDM (Time Division Multiplexing): channel divided into N time slots,

one per user; inefficient with low duty cycle users and at light load.
 FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing): frequency subdivided.

5: DataLink Layer 5-20

Channel Partitioning MAC protocols:
FDMA
FDMA: frequency division multiple access
 channel spectrum divided into frequency bands
 each station assigned fixed frequency band
 unused transmission time in frequency bands go idle
 example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, frequency bands 2,5,6 idle

time
frequency bands

 TDM (Time Division Multiplexing): channel divided into N time slots, one
per user; inefficient with low duty cycle users and at light load.
 FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing): frequency subdivided.

5: DataLink Layer 5-21

Random Access Protocols
 When node has packet to send
 transmit at full channel data rate R.
 no a priori coordination among nodes

 two or more transmitting nodes ➜ “collision”,

 random access MAC protocol specifies:
 how to detect collisions
 how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed
retransmissions)
 Examples of random access MAC protocols:
 slotted ALOHA
 ALOHA
 CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA
5: DataLink Layer 5-22
 Slotted ALOHA
Assumptions Operation
 all frames same size  when node obtains fresh
 time is divided into frame, it transmits in
equal size slots, time to next slot
transmit 1 frame  no collision, node can
 nodes start to transmit send new frame in next
frames only at slot
beginning of slots  if collision, node
 nodes are synchronized
retransmits frame in
 if 2 or more nodes each subsequent slot
transmit in slot, all with prob. p until
nodes detect collision success
5: DataLink Layer 5-23
Slotted ALOHA

Pros Cons
 single active node can  collisions, wasting
continuously transmit slots
 idle slots
at full rate of channel
 highly decentralized:  nodes may be able to
detect collision in less
only slots in nodes
than time to transmit
need to be in sync packet
 simple  clock synchronization
5: DataLink Layer 5-24
Slotted Aloha efficiency
Efficiency is the long-run  For max efficiency
fraction of successful slots with N nodes, find p*
when there are many nodes, that maximizes
each with many frames to Np(1-p)N-1
send  For many nodes, take
 Suppose N nodes with many
limit of Np*(1-p*)N-1
frames to send, each
transmits in slot with as N goes to infinity,
probability p gives 1/e = .37
 prob that node 1 has success
in a slot = p(1-p)N-1
 prob that any node has a At best: channel
success = Np(1-p)N-1 used for useful
transmissions 37%
of time!

5: DataLink Layer 5-25

Pure (unslotted) ALOHA
 unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization
 when frame first arrives
 transmit immediately
 collision probability increases:
 frame sent at t collides with other frames sent in [t -
0 0
1,t0+1]

5: DataLink Layer 5-26

Pure Aloha efficiency
P(success by given node) = P(node transmits) .
P(no other node transmits in [p0-1,p0]
.

P(no other node transmits in [p0-1,p0]

= p . (1-p)N-1 . (1-p)N-1
= p . (1-p)2(N-1)

… choosing optimum p and then letting n -> infty ...

Even worse ! = 1/(2e) = .18

5: DataLink Layer 5-27

CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access)
CSMA: listen before transmit:
If channel sensed idle: transmit entire frame
 If channel sensed busy, defer transmission

 Human analogy: don’t interrupt others!

5: DataLink Layer 5-28

 CSMA collisions spatial layout of nodes

collisions can still

occur:
propagation delay means
two nodes may not hear
each other’s transmission
collision:
entire packet
transmission
time wasted
note:
role of distance & propagation
delay in determining collision
probability

5: DataLink Layer 5-29

CSMA/CD (Collision
Detection)
CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA
 collisions detected within short time
 colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel
wastage
 collision detection:
 easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths,
compare transmitted, received signals
 difficult in wireless LANs: receiver shut off while
transmitting
 human analogy: the polite conversationalist

5: DataLink Layer 5-30

CSMA/CD collision detection

5: DataLink Layer 5-31

“Taking Turns” MAC
protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocols:
 share channel efficiently and fairly at high
load
 inefficient at low load: delay in channel
access, 1/N bandwidth allocated even if only 1
active node!
Random access MAC protocols
 efficient at low load: single node can fully
utilize channel
 high load: collision overhead

“taking turns” protocols

look for best of both worlds!
5: DataLink Layer 5-32
“Taking Turns” MAC
protocols
Polling: Token passing:
 master node  control token passed

“invites” slave from one node to next

nodes to transmit sequentially.
in turn  token message
 concerns:  concerns:
 polling overhead  token overhead
 latency  latency
 single point of  single point of failure
failure (master) (token)

5: DataLink Layer 5-33

 Summary of MAC protocols
 What do you do with a shared media?
 Channel Partitioning, by time, frequency or
code
• Time Division, Frequency Division
 Random partitioning (dynamic),
• ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD
• carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire),
hard in others (wireless)
• CSMA/CD used in Ethernet
• CSMA/CA used in 802.11
 Taking Turns
• polling from a central site, token passing
5: DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologies
Data link layer so far:
 services, error detection/correction, multiple
access
Next: LAN technologies
 addressing
 Ethernet
 hubs, switches
 PPP

5: DataLink Layer 5-35

Link Layer
 5.1 Introduction and  5.6 Hubs and switches
services  5.7 PPP
 5.2 Error detection  5.8 Link Virtualization:
and correction ATM
 5.3Multiple access
protocols
 5.4 Link-Layer
Addressing
 5.5 Ethernet

5: DataLink Layer 5-36

MAC Addresses and ARP
 32-bit IP address:
 network-layer address
 used to get datagram to destination IP subnet

 MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet)

address:
 used to get frame from one interface to
another physically-connected interface (same
network)
 48 bit MAC address (for most LANs)
burned in the adapter ROM
5: DataLink Layer 5-37
 LAN Addresses and ARP
Each adapter on LAN has unique LAN address

1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD Broadcast address =

FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF

LAN
(wired or = adapter
wireless)
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0

0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98

5: DataLink Layer 5-38

LAN Address (more)
 MAC address allocation administered by IEEE
 manufacturer buys portion of MAC address
space (to assure uniqueness)
 Analogy:
(a) MAC address: like Social Security
Number
(b) IP address: like postal address
 MAC flat address ➜ portability
 can move LAN card from one LAN to another
 IP hierarchical address NOT portable
 depends on IP subnet to which node is attached

5: DataLink Layer 5-39

 ARP: Address Resolution Protocol

Question: how to determine  Each IP node (Host,

MAC address of B Router) on LAN has
knowing B’s IP address? ARP table
 ARP Table: IP/MAC
[Link]
address mappings for
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
some LAN nodes
[Link] < IP address; MAC address;
[Link]
TTL>
LAN  TTL (Time To Live):
71-65-F7-2B-08-53 time after which
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
address mapping will
be forgotten (typically
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98 20 min)
[Link]

5: DataLink Layer 5-40

ARP protocol: Same LAN
(network)
 A wants to send datagram
to B, and B’s MAC address  A caches (saves) IP-to-
not in A’s ARP table. MAC address pair in its
 A broadcasts ARP query ARP table until
packet, containing B's IP information becomes old
address (times out)
 Dest MAC address = FF-  soft state: information
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF that times out (goes
 all machines on LAN away) unless refreshed
receive ARP query  ARP is “plug-and-
 B receives ARP packet,
replies to A with its (B's)
play”:
MAC address  nodes create their ARP
 frame sent to A’s MAC tables without
address (unicast) intervention from net
administrator

5: DataLink Layer 5-41

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol
Goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from
network server when it joins network
Can renew its lease on address in use
Allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while connected an “on”
Support for mobile users who want to join network (more shortly)
DHCP overview:
 host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg
 DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg
 host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
 DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg

5: DataLink Layer 5-42

DHCP client-server scenario

A DHCP [Link]
[Link]
server
[Link]
[Link] [Link]
B
[Link] arriving DHCP
[Link] [Link] E client needs
address in this
[Link] [Link]
network

5: DataLink Layer 5-43

DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP server: [Link] arriving
DHCP discover
client
src : [Link], 68
dest.: [Link],67
yiaddr: [Link]
transaction ID: 654

DHCP offer
src: [Link], 67
dest: [Link], 68
yiaddrr: [Link]
transaction ID: 654
Lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: [Link], 68
dest:: [Link], 67
yiaddrr: [Link]
transaction ID: 655
time Lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP ACK
src: [Link], 67
dest: [Link], 68
yiaddrr: [Link]
transaction ID: 655
Lifetime: 3600 secs

5: DataLink Layer 5-44

Routing to another LAN
walkthrough: send datagram from A to B via R
assume A know’s B IP address

A
 Two ARP tables in router R, one for each IP network (LAN)

R
B
 In routing table at source Host, find router [Link]
 In ARP table at source, find MAC address E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B, etc

5: DataLink Layer 5-45

 A creates datagram with source A, destination B
 A uses ARP to get R’s MAC address for [Link]
 A creates link-layer frame with R's MAC address as dest,
frame contains A-to-B IP datagram
 A’s adapter sends frame
 R’s adapter receives frame
 R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame, sees its
destined to B
 R uses ARP to get B’s MAC address
 R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B

R
B

5: DataLink Layer 5-46

Link Layer
 5.1 Introduction and  5.6 Hubs and switches
services  5.7 PPP
 5.2 Error detection  5.8 Link Virtualization:
and correction ATM
 5.3Multiple access
protocols
 5.4 Link-Layer
Addressing
 5.5 Ethernet

5: DataLink Layer 5-47

Ethernet
“dominant” wired LAN technology:
 cheap $20 for 100Mbs!
 first widely used LAN technology
 Simpler, cheaper than token LANs and ATM
 Kept up with speed race: 10 Mbps – 10 Gbps

Metcalfe’s Ethernet
sketch

5: DataLink Layer 5-48

Star topology
 Bus topology popular through mid 90s
 Now star topology prevails
 Connection choices: hub or switch (more later)

hub or
switch

5: DataLink Layer 5-49

Ethernet Frame Structure
Sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or
other network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet
frame

Preamble:
 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one
byte with pattern 10101011
 used to synchronize receiver, sender clock
rates

5: DataLink Layer 5-50

Ethernet Frame Structure
(more)
 Addresses: 6 bytes
 if adapter receives frame with matching destination
address, or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet),
it passes data in frame to net-layer protocol
 otherwise, adapter discards frame

 Type: indicates the higher layer protocol

(mostly IP but others may be supported such
as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)
 CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected,
the frame is simply dropped

5: DataLink Layer 5-51

Unreliable, connectionless
service
 Connectionless: No handshaking between
sending and receiving adapter.
 Unreliable: receiving adapter doesn’t send
acks or nacks to sending adapter
 stream of datagrams passed to network layer can
have gaps
 gaps will be filled if app is using TCP
 otherwise, app will see the gaps

5: DataLink Layer 5-52

Ethernet uses CSMA/CD
 No slots  Before attempting a
 adapter doesn’t retransmission,
transmit if it senses adapter waits a
that some other random time, that is,
adapter is transmitting, random access
that is, carrier sense
 transmitting adapter
aborts when it senses
that another adapter is
transmitting, that is,
collision detection

5: DataLink Layer 5-53

 Ethernet CSMA/CD algorithm
1. Adaptor receives 4. If adapter detects another
datagram from net layer & transmission while
creates frame transmitting, aborts and
2. If adapter senses channel sends jam signal
idle, it starts to transmit 5. After aborting, adapter
frame. If it senses channel enters exponential
busy, waits until channel backoff: after the mth
idle and then transmits collision, adapter chooses
3. If adapter transmits entire a K at random from
frame without detecting {0,1,2,…,2m-1}. Adapter
another transmission, the waits K·512 bit times and
adapter is done with frame returns to Step 2
!

5: DataLink Layer 5-54

Ethernet’s CSMA/CD (more)
Jam Signal: make sure all Exponential Backoff:
other transmitters are  Goal: adapt retransmission
aware of collision; 48 bits attempts to estimated
Bit time: .1 microsec for 10 current load
 heavy load: random wait
Mbps Ethernet ;
for K=1023, wait time is will be longer
 first collision: choose K
about 50 msec
from {0,1}; delay is K· 512
bit transmission times
 after second collision:

See/interact with Java choose K from {0,1,2,3}…

applet on AWL Web site:  after ten collisions, choose
highly recommended ! K from {0,1,2,3,4,…,1023}

5: DataLink Layer 5-55

CSMA/CD efficiency
 Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LAN
 ttrans = time to transmit max-size frame

 Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0

 Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinity
 Much better than ALOHA, but still decentralized, simple, and cheap

1
efficiency 
1  5t prop / ttrans

5: DataLink Layer 5-56

10BaseT and 100BaseT
 10/100 Mbps rate; latter called “fast ethernet”
 T stands for Twisted Pair
 Nodes connect to a hub: “star topology”; 100
m max distance between nodes and hub

twisted pair

hub

5: DataLink Layer 5-57

Hubs
Hubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters:
 bits coming from one link go out all other links
 at the same rate
 no frame buffering
 no CSMA/CD at hub: adapters detect collisions
 provides net management functionality

twisted pair

hub

5: DataLink Layer 5-58

Manchester encoding

 Used in 10BaseT
 Each bit has a transition
 Allows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to
synchronize to each other
 no need for a centralized, global clock among nodes!
 Hey, this is physical-layer stuff!

5: DataLink Layer 5-59

Gbit Ethernet
 uses standard Ethernet frame format
 allows for point-to-point links and shared
broadcast channels
 in shared mode, CSMA/CD is used; short
distances between nodes required for
efficiency
 uses hubs, called here “Buffered Distributors”
 Full-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links
 10 Gbps now !

5: DataLink Layer 5-60

Link Layer
 5.1 Introduction and  5.6 Interconnections:
services Hubs and switches
 5.2 Error detection  5.7 PPP
and correction  5.8 Link Virtualization:
 5.3Multiple access ATM
protocols
 5.4 Link-Layer
Addressing
 5.5 Ethernet

5: DataLink Layer 5-61

 Interconnecting with hubs
 Backbone hub interconnects LAN segments
 Extends max distance between nodes
 But individual segment collision domains become one large
collision domain
 Can’t interconnect 10BaseT & 100BaseT

hub

hub
hu hub
b

5: DataLink Layer 5-62

Switch
 Link layer device
 stores and forwards Ethernet frames
 examines frame header and selectively forwards
frame based on MAC dest address
 when frame is to be forwarded on segment, uses
CSMA/CD to access segment
 transparent
 hosts are unaware of presence of switches
 plug-and-play, self-learning
 switches do not need to be configured

5: DataLink Layer 5-63

Forwarding
switch
1
2 3

hub
hu hub
b

• How do determine onto which LAN segment to

forward frame?
• Looks like a routing problem...
5: DataLink Layer 5-64
Self learning
 A switch has a switch table
 entry in switch table:
 (MAC Address, Interface, Time Stamp)
 stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60
min)
 switch learns which hosts can be reached through
which interfaces
 when frame received, switch “learns” location
of sender: incoming LAN segment
 records sender/location pair in switch table

5: DataLink Layer 5-65

Filtering/Forwarding
When switch receives a frame:

index switch table using MAC dest address

if entry found for destination
then{
if dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frame
else forward the frame on interface indicated
}
else flood

forward on all but the interface

on which the frame arrived

5: DataLink Layer 5-66

Switch example
Suppose C sends frame to D

switch address interface

1 A 1
2 3
B 1
E 2
hu hub hub G 3
A
b I
D F
B C G H
E

 Switch receives frame from from C

 notes in bridge table that C is on interface 1
 because D is not in table, switch forwards frame into
interfaces 2 and 3
 frame received by D
5: DataLink Layer 5-67
Switch example
Suppose D replies back with frame to C.

address interface
switch
A 1
B 1
E 2
hu hub hub G 3
A
b I C 1

D F
B C G H
E

 Switch receives frame from from D

 notes in bridge table that D is on interface 2
 because C is in table, switch forwards frame only to
interface 1
 frame received by C
5: DataLink Layer 5-68
Switch: traffic isolation
 switch installation breaks subnet into LAN
segments
 switch filters packets:
 same-LAN-segment frames not usually
forwarded onto other LAN segments
 segments become separate collision domains

switch

collision
domain

hub
hub hub

collision domain collision domain 5: DataLink Layer 5-69

Switches: dedicated access
 Switch with many A
interfaces
 Hosts have direct C’ B

connection to switch
 No collisions; full duplex switch

Switching: A-to-A’ and B-to- C

B’ simultaneously, no
collisions B’ A’

5: DataLink Layer 5-70

More on Switches
 cut-through switching: frame forwarded
from input to output port without first
collecting entire frame
 slight reduction in latency
 combinations of shared/dedicated,
10/100/1000 Mbps interfaces

5: DataLink Layer 5-71

Institutional network

mail server
to external
network
router web server

switch
IP subnet

hub
hu hub
b

5: DataLink Layer 5-72

Switches vs. Routers
 both store-and-forward devices
 routers: network layer devices (examine network layer headers)
 switches are link layer devices

 routers maintain routing tables, implement routing

algorithms
 switches maintain switch tables, implement filtering,
learning algorithms

5: DataLink Layer 5-73

Summary comparison

hubs routers switches

traffi c no yes yes

isolation
plug & play yes no yes

optimal no yes no
routing
cut yes no yes
through
5: DataLink Layer 5-74
Link Layer
 5.1 Introduction and  5.6 Hubs and switches
services  5.7 PPP
 5.2 Error detection  5.8 Link Virtualization:
and correction ATM
 5.3Multiple access
protocols
 5.4 Link-Layer
Addressing
 5.5 Ethernet

5: DataLink Layer 5-75

Point to Point Data Link
Control
 one sender, one receiver, one link: easier than
broadcast link:
 no Media Access Control
 no need for explicit MAC addressing
 e.g., dialup link, ISDN line
 popular point-to-point DLC protocols:
 PPP (point-to-point protocol)
 HDLC: High level data link control (Data link
used to be considered “high layer” in
protocol stack!

5: DataLink Layer 5-76

PPP Design Requirements [RFC
1557]
 packet framing: encapsulation of network-layer
datagram in data link frame
 carry network layer data of any network layer
protocol (not just IP) at same time
 ability to demultiplex upwards
 bit transparency: must carry any bit pattern in the
data field
 error detection (no correction)
 connection liveness: detect, signal link failure to
network layer
 network layer address negotiation: endpoint can
learn/configure each other’s network address

5: DataLink Layer 5-77

PPP non-requirements
 no error correction/recovery
 no flow control
 out of order delivery OK
 no need to support multipoint links (e.g.,
polling)

Error recovery, flow control, data re-ordering

all relegated to higher layers!

5: DataLink Layer 5-78

PPP Data Frame
 Flag: delimiter (framing)
 Address: does nothing (only one option)
 Control: does nothing; in the future possible
multiple control fields
 Protocol: upper layer protocol to which frame
delivered (eg, PPP-LCP, IP, IPCP, etc)

5: DataLink Layer 5-79

PPP Data Frame
 info: upper layer data being carried
 check: cyclic redundancy check for error
detection

5: DataLink Layer 5-80

Byte Stuffing
 “data transparency” requirement: data field
must be allowed to include flag pattern
<01111110>
 Q: is received <01111110> data or flag?

 Sender: adds (“stuffs”) extra < 01111110>

byte after each < 01111110> data byte
 Receiver:
 two 01111110 bytes in a row: discard first
byte, continue data reception
 single 01111110: flag byte
5: DataLink Layer 5-81
 Byte Stuffing

flag byte
pattern
in data
to send

flag byte pattern plus

stuffed byte in
transmitted data

5: DataLink Layer 5-82

PPP Data Control Protocol
Before exchanging network-
layer data, data link peers
must
 configure PPP link (max.
frame length,
authentication)
 learn/configure network
layer information
 for IP: carry IP Control
Protocol (IPCP) msgs
(protocol field: 8021) to
configure/learn IP
address
5: DataLink Layer 5-83
Link Layer
 5.1 Introduction and  5.6 Hubs and switches
services  5.7 PPP
 5.2 Error detection  5.8 Link Virtualization:
and correction ATM and MPLS
 5.3Multiple access
protocols
 5.4 Link-Layer
Addressing
 5.5 Ethernet

5: DataLink Layer 5-84

Virtualization of networks

Virtualization of resources: a powerful

abstraction in systems engineering:
 computing examples: virtual memory, virtual
devices
 Virtual machines: e.g., java
 IBM VM os from 1960’s/70’s
 layering of abstractions: don’t sweat the
details of the lower layer, only deal with lower
layers abstractly

5: DataLink Layer 5-85

 The Internet: virtualizing networks
1974: multiple unconnected … differing in:
nets  addressing conventions
 ARPAnet formats packet
 data-over-cable networks  error recovery
 packet satellite network (Aloha)  routing
 packet radio network

ARPAnet satellite net

"A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication",
V. Cerf, R. Kahn, IEEE Transactions on Communications,
5: DataLink Layer 5-86
May, 1974, pp. 637-648.
The Internet: virtualizing networks
Internetwork layer (IP): Gateway:
 addressing: internetwork  “embed internetwork packets
appears as a single, uniform in local packet format or
entity, despite underlying extract them”
local network heterogeneity  route (at internetwork level)
 network of networks to next gateway

gateway

ARPAnet satellite net

5: DataLink Layer 5-87

Cerf & Kahn’s Internetwork
Architecture
What is virtualized?
 two layers of addressing: internetwork and local
network
 new layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at
internetwork layer
 underlying local network technology
 cable
 satellite
 56K telephone modem
 today: ATM, MPLS

… “invisible” at internetwork layer. Looks like a link

layer technology to IP!

5: DataLink Layer 5-88

ATM and MPLS
 ATM, MPLS separate networks in their
own right
 different service models, addressing, routing
from Internet
 viewed by Internet as logical link
connecting IP routers
 just like dialup link is really part of separate
network (telephone network)
 ATM, MPSL: of technical interest in their
own right
5: DataLink Layer 5-89
Asynchronous Transfer Mode:
ATM
 1990’s/00 standard for high-speed
(155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband
Integrated Service Digital Network architecture
 Goal: integrated, end-end transport of carry
voice, video, data
 meeting timing/QoS requirements of voice,
video (versus Internet best-effort model)
 “next generation” telephony: technical roots
in telephone world
 packet-switching (fixed length packets, called
“cells”) using virtual circuits

5: DataLink Layer 5-90

ATM architecture

 adaptation layer: only at edge of ATM network

 data segmentation/reassembly
 roughly analagous to Internet transport layer
 ATM layer: “network” layer
 cell switching, routing
 physical layer
5: DataLink Layer 5-91
 ATM: network or link layer?
Vision: end-to-end
transport: “ATM from
IP
desktop to desktop” network
 ATM is a network ATM
technology network
Reality: used to connect
IP backbone routers
 “IP over ATM”
 ATM as switched
link layer,
connecting IP
routers

5: DataLink Layer 5-92

ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
 ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL): “adapts” upper
layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM
layer below
 AAL present only in end systems, not in
switches
 AAL layer segment (header/trailer fields, data)
fragmented across multiple ATM cells
 analogy: TCP segment in many IP packets

5: DataLink Layer 5-93

ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
[more]
Different versions of AAL layers, depending on ATM
service class:
 AAL1: for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services, e.g. circuit
emulation
 AAL2: for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services, e.g., MPEG video
 AAL5: for data (eg, IP datagrams)

User data

AAL PDU

ATM cell

5: DataLink Layer 5-94

ATM Layer
Service: transport cells across ATM network
 analogous to IP network layer
 very different services than IP network layer
Guarantees ?
Network Service Congestion
Architecture Model Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback

Internet best effort none no no no no (inferred

via loss)
ATM CBR constant yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM VBR guaranteed yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM ABR guaranteed no yes no yes
minimum
ATM UBR none no yes no no
5: DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM Layer: Virtual Circuits
 VC transport: cells carried on VC from source to dest
 call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
 each packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)
 every switch on source-dest path maintain “state” for each
passing connection
 link,switch resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be allocated
to VC: to get circuit-like perf.
 Permanent VCs (PVCs)
 long lasting connections
 typically: “permanent” route between to IP routers
 Switched VCs (SVC):
 dynamically set up on per-call basis

5: DataLink Layer 5-96

ATM VCs
 Advantages of ATM VC approach:
 QoS performance guarantee for connection
mapped to VC (bandwidth, delay, delay
jitter)
 Drawbacks of ATM VC approach:
 Inefficient support of datagram traffic
 one PVC between each source/dest pair)
does not scale (N*2 connections needed)
 SVC introduces call setup latency,
processing overhead for short lived
connections

5: DataLink Layer 5-97

 ATM Layer: ATM cell
 5-byte ATM cell header
 48-byte payload
 Why?: small payload -> short cell-creation
delay for digitized voice
 halfway between 32 and 64 (compromise!)

Cell header

Cell format

5: DataLink Layer 5-98

ATM cell header
 VCI: virtual channel ID
 willchange from link to link thru net
 PT: Payload type (e.g. RM cell versus data
cell)
 CLP: Cell Loss Priority bit
 CLP = 1 implies low priority cell, can be
discarded if congestion
 HEC: Header Error Checksum
 cyclic redundancy check

5: DataLink Layer 5-99

ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layer:
 Transmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS): adapts
ATM layer above to PMD sublayer below
 Physical Medium Dependent: depends on physical
medium being used

TCS Functions:
 Header checksum generation: 8 bits CRC
 Cell delineation
 With “unstructured” PMD sublayer, transmission
of idle cells when no data cells to send
5: DataLink Layer 5-100
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD)
sublayer
 SONET/SDH: transmission frame structure
(like a container carrying bits);
 bit synchronization;
 bandwidth partitions (TDM);
 several speeds: OC3 = 155.52 Mbps; OC12 =
622.08 Mbps; OC48 = 2.45 Gbps, OC192 = 9.6 Gbps
 TI/T3: transmission frame structure (old
telephone hierarchy): 1.5 Mbps/ 45 Mbps
 unstructured: just cells (busy/idle)

5: DataLink Layer 5-101

 IP-Over-ATM IP over ATM
Classic IP only
 3 “networks” (e.g., LAN segments)  replace “network”
 MAC (802.3) and IP addresses

(e.g., LAN segment)

with ATM network
 ATM addresses, IP
addresses
ATM
network

Ethernet Ethernet
LANs LANs
5: DataLink Layer 5-102
IP-Over-ATM
app
app transport
transport IP IP
IP AAL AAL
Eth Eth ATM
ATM
phy phy phy ATM phy
phy
ATM
phy

5: DataLink Layer 5-103

Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
 at Source Host:
 IP layer maps between IP, ATM dest address (using ARP)
 passes datagram to AAL5
 AAL5 encapsulates data, segments cells, passes to ATM
layer
 ATM network: moves cell along VC to destination
 at Destination Host:
 AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagram
 if CRC OK, datagram is passed to IP

5: DataLink Layer 5-104

IP-Over-ATM

Issues: ATM
 IP datagrams into network
ATM AAL5 PDUs
 from IP addresses
to ATM addresses
 just like IP
addresses to
Ethernet
802.3 MAC LANs
addresses!

5: DataLink Layer 5-105

Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)

 initial goal: speed up IP forwarding by using

fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do
forwarding
 borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approach
 but IP datagram still keeps IP address!

PPP or Ethernet
MPLS header IP header remainder of link-layer frame
header

label Exp S TTL

20 3 1 5
5: DataLink Layer 5-106
MPLS capable routers
 a.k.a. label-switched router
 forwards packets to outgoing interface based
only on label value (don’t inspect IP address)
 MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding
tables
 signaling protocol needed to set up forwarding
 RSVP-TE
 forwarding possible along paths that IP alone would
not allow (e.g., source-specific routing) !!
 use MPLS for traffic engineering

 must co-exist with IP-only routers

5: DataLink Layer 5-107

MPLS forwarding tables
in out out
label label dest
interface
10 A 0 in out out
12 D 0 label label dest
interface
8 A 1 10 6 A 1
12 9 D 0

R6
0 0
D
1 1
R4 R3
R5
0 0
A
R2 in outR1 out
label label dest
in out out
interface
label label dest 6 - A 0
interface
8 6 A 0
5: DataLink Layer 5-108
Chapter 5: Summary
 principles behind data link layer services:
 error detection, correction
 sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access
 link layer addressing

 instantiation and implementation of various link

layer technologies
 Ethernet
 switched LANS
 PPP
 virtualized networks as a link layer: ATM,
MPLS

5: DataLink Layer 5-109