Introduction

Overview:
 what’s the Internet
 what’s a protocol?
 network edge
 network core
 access net, physical media
 Internet/ISP structure
 performance: loss, delay
 protocol layers, service models
 network modeling

Introduction 1-1
roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched
networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History
Introduction 1-2
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts”
view
 millions of connected
router
workstation
computing devices:
server
hosts = end systems mobile
 running network apps local ISP
 communication links
 fiber, copper, radio,
satellite regional ISP
 transmission rate =
bandwidth
 routers: forward
packets (chunks of
data) company
network

Introduction 1-3
“Cool” internet appliances

Web-enabled toaster +
weather forecaster

IP picture frame
[Link]

World’s smallest web server

[Link] Internet phones

Introduction 1-4
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts”
view
 protocols control router workstation
sending, receiving of server
msgs mobile
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, FTP, local ISP
PPP
 Internet: “network of
networks” regional ISP
 loosely hierarchical
 public Internet versus
private intranet
 Internet standards
 RFC: Request for
company
comments network
 IETF: Internet Engineering
Task Force Introduction 1-5
What’s the Internet: a service view
 communication
infrastructure enables
distributed applications:
 Web, email, games, e-
commerce, file sharing
 communication services
provided to apps:
 Connectionless unreliable
 connection-oriented
reliable

Introduction 1-6
What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
 “what’s the time?”  machines rather
 “I have a question” than humans
 introductions  all communication
activity in Internet
… specific msgs sent governed by
protocols
… specific actions protocols define format,
taken when msgs order of msgs sent and
received, or other received among
events network entities, and
actions taken on msg
transmission, receipt
Introduction 1-7
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network
protocol:

Hi
TCP connection
request
Hi
TCP connection
Got the response
time? Get [Link]
2:00
<file>
time

Q: Other human protocols?

Introduction 1-8
roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched
networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History
Introduction 1-9
A closer look at network
structure:
 network edge:
applications and
hosts
 network core:
 routers
 network of
networks
 access networks,
physical media:
communication
links
Introduction 1-10
 The network edge:
 end systems (hosts):
 run application programs
 e.g. Web, email
 at “edge of network”
 client/server model
 client host requests,
receives service from
always-on server
 e.g. Web browser/server;
email client/server
 peer-peer model:
 minimal (or no) use of
dedicated servers
 e.g. Skype, BitTorrent, Introduction 1-11
KaZaA
Network edge: connection-oriented
service
Goal: data transfer between
TCPend
service
systems
[RFC 793]
 handshaking: setup (prepare
 reliable,
for) data
in-order
transfer
byte-
ahead of time stream data transfer
 Hello, hello back human protocol
 loss: acknowledgements
and retransmissions
 set up “state” in two communicating hosts
 TCP - Transmission Control  flow control:
Protocol
 sender won’t overwhelm
 Internet’s connection-oriented service
receiver
 congestion control:
 senders “slow down
sending rate” when
network congested

Introduction 1-12
Network edge: connectionless service

Goal: data transfer App’s using TCP:

between end systems  HTTP (Web), FTP (file
 same as before! transfer), Telnet
 UDP - User Datagram (remote login), SMTP
Protocol [RFC 768]: (email)
 connectionless
 unreliable data
App’s using UDP:
transfer  streaming media,
 no flow control
teleconferencing,
 no congestion DNS, Internet
control telephony

Introduction 1-13
roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched
networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History
Introduction 1-14
The Network Core
 mesh of interconnected
routers
 the fundamental
question: how is data
transferred through
net?
 circuit switching:
dedicated circuit per
call: telephone net
 packet-switching:
data sent thru net in
discrete “chunks”
Introduction 1-15
Network Core: Circuit Switching

End-end resources reserved for “call”

 link bandwidth, switch capacity
 dedicated resources: no sharing
 circuit-like (guaranteed) performance
 call setup required

Introduction 1-16
Network Core: Circuit Switching
network resources  dividing link
(e.g., bandwidth) bandwidth into
divided into “pieces”
 frequency division
“pieces”
 pieces allocated to  time division

calls
 resource piece idle if
not used by owning
call (no sharing)

Introduction 1-17
Circuit Switching: FDM and TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
Introduction 1-18
Numerical example
 How long does it take to send a file of
640,000 bits from host A to host B over
a circuit-switched network?
 All links are 1.536 Mbps
 Each link uses TDM with 24 slots/sec
 500 msec to establish end-to-end circuit

Let’s work it out!

Introduction 1-19
Network Core: Packet Switching
each end-end data stream resource contention:
divided into packets  aggregate resource
 user A, B packets share demand can exceed
network resources amount available
 each packet uses full  congestion: packets
link bandwidth queue, wait for link
 resources used as use
needed  store and forward:
packets move one
Bandwidth division into hop at a time
“pieces”  Node receives complete
Dedicated allocation packet before forwarding
Resource reservation
Introduction 1-20
Packet Switching: Statistical
Multiplexing
100 Mb/s
A Ethernet statistical multiplexing C

1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link

D E

Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed

pattern, shared on demand  statistical
multiplexing.
TDM: each host gets same slot in revolving TDM
Introduction 1-21
Packet-switching: store-and-
forward
L
R R R

 Takes L/R seconds to Example:

transmit (push out)  L = 7.5 Mbits
packet of L bits on to  R = 1.5 Mbps
link or R bps  delay = 15 sec
 Entire packet must
arrive at router
before it can be
transmitted on next
link: store and
forward
more on delay shortly …
 delay = 3L/R
(assuming zero
propagation delay) Introduction 1-22
Packet switching versus circuit
switching
Packet switching allows more users to use
network!
 1 Mb/s link
 each user:
 100 kb/s when
“active”
 active 10% of time
N users
 circuit-switching: 1 Mbps link
 10 users

 packet switching:
 with 35 users, Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
probability > 10
active less than .0004
Introduction 1-23
 Packet switching versus circuit
switching
Is packet switching a “slam dunk winner?”
 Great for bursty data
resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup
 Excessive congestion: packet delay and loss
 protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
 bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video
apps
 still an unsolved problem
Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit
switching) versus on-demand allocation (packet- Introduction 1-24
switching)?
roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched
networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History
Introduction 1-25
Access networks and physical media
Q: How to connect end
systems to edge
router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access
networks (school,
company)
 mobile access
networks
Keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network? Introduction 1-26
Residential access: point to point
access
 Dialup via modem
 up to 56Kbps direct access
to router (often less)
 Can’t surf and phone at
same time: can’t be
“always on”
 ADSL: asymmetric digital subscriber line
 up to 1 Mbps upstream (today typically < 256
kbps)
 up to 8 Mbps downstream (today typically < 1
Mbps)
 FDM: 50 kHz - 1 MHz for downstream
4 kHz - 50 kHz for upstream Introduction 1-27
Residential access: cable modems

 HFC: hybrid fiber coax

 asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream,
2 Mbps upstream
 network of cable and fiber attaches homes
to ISP router
 homes share access to router
 deployment: available via cable TV
companies

Introduction 1-28
Residential access: cable modems

Diagram: [Link] Introduction 1-29

Cable Network Architecture: Overview

Typically 500 to 5,000 homes

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network (simplified)

Introduction 1-30
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

server(s)

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network

Introduction 1-31
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network (simplified)

Introduction 1-32
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

FDM:
C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network

Introduction 1-33
Company access: local area networks
 company/univ local area
network (LAN) connects
end system to edge
router
 Ethernet:
 shared or dedicated
link connects end
system and router
 10 Mbs, 100Mbps,
Gigabit Ethernet

Introduction 1-34
Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access
network connects end
system to router router
 via base station aka “access
point” base
 wireless LANs:
station
 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11 or 54
Mbps
 wider-area wireless access
 provided by telco operator
 3G ~ 384 kbps mobile
• Will it happen?? hosts
 GPRS in Europe/US

Introduction 1-35
Home networks
Typical home network components:
 ADSL or cable modem
 router/firewall/NAT
 Ethernet
 wireless access
point
wireless
to/from laptops
cable router/
cable
modem firewall
headend
wireless
access
Ethernet point

Introduction 1-36
Physical Media
Twisted Pair (TP)
 Bit: propagates between  two insulated copper
transmitter/rcvr pairs wires
 physical link: what lies  Category 3: traditional
between transmitter & phone wires, 10 Mbps
receiver Ethernet
 guided media:
 Category 5:
100Mbps Ethernet
 signals propagate in solid
media: copper, fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio

Introduction 1-37
Physical Media: coax, fiber
Coaxial cable: Fiber optic cable:
 two concentric copper  glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
 bidirectional  high-speed operation:
 baseband:  high-speed point-to-point
 single channel on cable transmission (e.g., 10’s-
 legacy Ethernet 100’s Gps)
 broadband:  low error rate:
 multiple channels on repeaters spaced far
cable apart ; immune to
 HFC
electromagnetic noise

Introduction 1-38
Physical media: radio
 signal carried in Radio link types:
electromagnetic  terrestrial microwave
spectrum  e.g. up to 45 Mbps

 no physical “wire” channels

 LAN (e.g., Wifi)
 bidirectional
 11Mbps, 54 Mbps
 propagation
 wide-area (e.g., cellular)
environment effects:
 e.g. 3G: hundreds of kbps
 reflection
 satellite
 obstruction by objects
 interference
 Kbps to 45Mbps channel
(or multiple smaller
channels)
 270 msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus low
Introduction 1-39
altitude
roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched
networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History
Introduction 1-40
 Internet structure: network of
networks
 roughly hierarchical
 at center: “tier-1” ISPs (e.g., MCI, Sprint, AT&T,
Cable and Wireless), national/international
coverage
 treat each other as equals
Tier-1 providers
also interconnect
Tier-1 at public network
providers
Tier 1 ISP
NAP access points
interconnec (NAPs)
t (peer)
privately
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP

Introduction 1-41
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint
Sprint US backbone network
DS3 (45 Mbps)
OC3 (155 Mbps)
OC12 (622 Mbps)
OC48 (2.4 Gbps)
Seattle
Tacoma
POP: point-of-presence

to/from backbone
New York
Stockton Cheyenne Chicago
peering Pennsauken

San Jose
… … Roachdale
Relay
Wash. DC
Kansas City
.
Anaheim
…
…

Atlanta
to/from customers
Fort Worth

Orlando
Introduction 1-42
 Internet structure: network of
networks
 “Tier-2” ISPs: smaller (often regional) ISPs
 Connect to one or more tier-1 ISPs, possibly other tier-2
ISPs

Tier-2 ISPs
Tier-2 ISP pays Tier-2 ISP also peer
Tier-2 ISP privately with
tier-1 ISP for
connectivity to Tier 1 ISP each other,
rest of Internet NAP interconnect
 tier-2 ISP is at NAP
customer of
tier-1 provider Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Introduction 1-43
 Internet structure: network of
networks
 “Tier-3” ISPs and local ISPs
 last hop (“access”) network (closest to end systems)

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Local and Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
tier- 3 ISPs
are Tier 1 ISP
customers of NAP
higher tier
ISPs
connecting
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP
them to rest
of Internet local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-44
 Internet structure: network of
networks
 a packet passes through many networks!

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier 1 ISP
NAP

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-45
roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched
networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History
Introduction 1-46
 How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link
capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn

packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction 1-47
Four sources of packet delay
 1. nodal processing:  2. queueing
 check bit errors  time waiting at output
 determine output link link for transmission
 depends on
congestion level of
router

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

Introduction 1-48
Delay in packet-switched
networks
3. Transmission delay: 4. Propagation delay:
 R=link bandwidth  d = length of physical
(bps) link
 L=packet length  s = propagation speed
(bits) in medium (~2x108
 time to send bits into m/sec)
link = L/R  propagation
Note: delay
s and R are =
very
d/s
different quantities!
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing Introduction 1-49
 Caravan analogy
100 100
km km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
 Cars “propagate” at  Time to “push” entire
100 km/hr caravan through toll
 Toll booth takes 12 sec booth onto highway =
to service a car 12*10 = 120 sec
(transmission time)  Time for last car to
 car~bit; caravan ~ propagate from 1st to
packet 2nd toll both:
 Q: How long until 100km/(100km/hr)= 1
hr
caravan is lined up
 A: 62 minutes
before 2nd toll booth? Introduction 1-50
Caravan analogy (more)
100 100
km km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
 Yes! After 7 min, 1st car
 Cars now “propagate” at 2nd booth and 3 cars
at still at 1st booth.
1000 km/hr  1st bit of packet can
 Toll booth now takes 1 arrive at 2nd router
min to service a car before packet is fully
 Q: Will cars arrive to transmitted at 1st
2nd booth before all router!
cars serviced at 1st
booth?
Introduction 1-51
Nodal delay
d nodal d proc  d queue  d trans  d prop

 dproc = processing delay

 typically a few microsecs or less
 dqueue = queuing delay
 depends on congestion
 dtrans = transmission delay
 = L/R, significant for low-speed links
 dprop = propagation delay
 a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs

Introduction 1-52
Queueing delay (revisited)
 R=link bandwidth
(bps)
 L=packet length
(bits)
 a=average packet
traffic intensity
arrival rate = La/R

 La/R ~ 0: average queueing delay small

 La/R -> 1: delays become large
 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving than can
be serviced, average delay infinite!
Introduction 1-53
“Real” Internet delays and
routes
 What do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?
 T rac er o ute program: provides delay
measurement from source to router along end-
end Internet path towards destination. For all
i:
 sends three packets that will reach router i on path
towards destination
 router i will return packets to sender
 sender times interval between transmission and
reply. 3 probes
3 probes

3 probes

Introduction 1-54
“Real” Internet delays and
routes
traceroute: [Link] to [Link]
Three delay measurements from
[Link] to cs-
[Link]
1 cs-gw ([Link]) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 [Link] ([Link]) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 [Link] ([Link]) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 [Link] ([Link]) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 [Link] ([Link]) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 [Link] ([Link]) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 [Link] ([Link]) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 [Link] ([Link]) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 [Link] ([Link]) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms link
10 [Link] ([Link]) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 [Link] ([Link]) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 [Link] ([Link]) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 [Link] ([Link]) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 [Link] ([Link]) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 [Link] ([Link]) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 [Link] ([Link]) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not
19 [Link])
([Link]) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

Introduction 1-55
Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in
buffer has finite capacity
 when packet arrives to full queue,
packet is dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by
previous node, by source end system, or
not retransmitted at all

Introduction 1-56
roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched
networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History
Introduction 1-57
Protocol “Layers”
Networks are
complex!
 many “pieces”:
Question:
 hosts
Is there any hope of
 routers
organizing structure
 links of various of network?
media
 applications
Or at least our
 protocols discussion of
 hardware, networks?
software

Introduction 1-58
Organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

 a series of steps

Introduction 1-59
Layering of airline
functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

Layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions
 relying on services provided by layer below

Introduction 1-60
Why layering?
Dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance, updating
of system
 change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t
affect rest of system
 layering considered harmful?

Introduction 1-61
Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting network
applications application
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP
 transport: process-process data
transport
transfer
 TCP, UDP network
 network: routing of datagrams
from source to destination link
 IP, routing protocols
 link: data transfer between physical
neighboring network elements
 PPP, Ethernet
 physical: bits “on the wire”
Introduction 1-62
 source
message M applicatio
Encapsulation
segment Ht M n
datagram Hn Ht M transport
frame Hl Hn Ht M network
link
physical link
physical

switch

destination Hn H t M network
M applicatio
H l Hn H t M link Hn H t M
Ht M n physical
Hn H t M transport
H l Hn H t M network router
link
physical
Introduction 1-63
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched
networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History
Introduction 1-64
Internet History
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
 1961: Kleinrock -  1972:
queueing theory shows  ARPAnet public
effectiveness of packet- demonstration
switching  NCP (Network Control
 1964: Baran - packet-
Protocol) first host-host
switching in military protocol
nets  first e-mail program
 1967: ARPAnet  ARPAnet has 15 nodes
conceived by Advanced
Research Projects
Agency
 1969: first ARPAnet
node operational

Introduction 1-65
 Internet History
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary
nets
 1970: ALOHAnet satellite
Cerf and Kahn’s
network in Hawaii internetworking principles:
 1974: Cerf and Kahn -  minimalism, autonomy -
architecture for no internal changes
interconnecting networks required to interconnect
 1976: Ethernet at Xerox networks
 best effort service model
PARC
 stateless routers
 ate70’s: proprietary  decentralized control
architectures: DECnet, SNA,
XNA define today’s Internet
architecture
 late 70’s: switching fixed
length packets (ATM
precursor)
 1979: ARPAnet has 200
nodes

Introduction 1-66
Internet History
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of
networks
 1983: deployment of  new national
TCP/IP networks: Csnet,
 1982: smtp e-mail BITnet, NSFnet,
protocol defined Minitel
 1983: DNS defined  100,000 hosts
for name-to-IP- connected to
address translation confederation of
 1985: ftp protocol networks
defined
 1988: TCP
congestion control
Introduction 1-67
Internet History
1990, 2000’s: commercialization, the Web, new
apps
 Early 1990’s: ARPAnet
Late 1990’s – 2000’s:
decommissioned  more killer apps: instant
 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on
messaging, P2P file
commercial use of NSFnet sharing
(decommissioned, 1995)  network security to
 early 1990s: Web
forefront
 hypertext [Bush 1945,  est. 50 million host, 100
Nelson 1960’s] million+ users
 HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee  backbone links running at
 1994: Mosaic, later Gbps
Netscape
 late 1990’s:
commercialization of the
Web
Introduction 1-68
Introduction: Summary
Covered a “ton” of You now have:
material!  context, overview,
 Internet overview “feel” of networking
 what’s a protocol?  more depth, detail
 network edge, core, to follow!
access network
 packet-switching
versus circuit-
switching
 Internet/ISP structure
 performance: loss, delay
 layering and service
models
 history Introduction 1-69