body structures

Dr. najwa almortadi

 Cyto surroundings

Organelles live in cytoplasm—an aqueous mass that’s

surrounded by the cell membrane. Cyto- is from the
Greek root kytos, which means container or body; it de
notes a relationship to a cell. The cell membrane, also
called the plasma membrane, encloses the cytoplasm
and forms the outer boundary of each cell.
 Nuclear power

The largest organelle is the nucleus, a word derived

from the Latin word nuculeus, which means control. The
nucleus is the control center of the cell. It stores
deoxyribo nucleic acid (DNA), which carries genetic
material and is responsible for cellular reproduction or
division.
The typical animal cell is characterized by several
additional elements:
•Adenosine triphosphate,the energy that fuels cellular
activity, is made in the mitochondria , the cell’s power
plant.
•Ribosomes and the endoplasmic reticulum synthesize
proteins and metabolize fat within the cell.
•The Golgi apparatus holds enzyme systems that assist
in completing the cell’s metabolic functions.
•Lysosomes contain enzymes that allow cytoplasmic
digestion.
Cell division and reproduction
Individual cells are subject to wear and tear and must
reproduce quickly to replace themselves. Genetic information
passes from one generation of cells to the next in an intricate
process that is vital to survival.
Mistakes here can lead to lethal genetic disorders, cancer, and
other conditions.
Mitosis
All cells except gametes (ova and spermatozoa) reproduce
through a process called mitosis(from the Greek
root mitos , which means thread ,with the suffix-osis,
which denotes an action or state). During mitosis, the
nucleus and genetic material of the cell divide, resulting
in the formation of two separate daughter cells. The
process is completed when the cell body completes its division
(called cytokinesis , from the Greek root kytos
and the Greek word kinesis , which means movement).
Cell division consists of one inactive phase and four active
phases. Before a cell can divide, it must double in mass
and content. This begins during the inactive growth phase
of mitosis, called interphase . At this phase, chromatin
(the network of small, slender rods in the nucleus that
give it its glandular appearance) begins to form.
Replication and duplication of DNA occur during the
four active phases of mitosis:
 prophase
 metaphase
 anaphase
 telophase.
Prophase
During prophase , the chromosomes coil and shorten
and the nuclear membrane dissolves. Each chromosome
is made up of a pair of strands, called chromatids.
Chromatids are connected by a spindle of fibers called a
centromere
 Metaphase
During metaphase , chromosomes line up in the center
of the cell. The centromeres then replicate.
 Anaphase
At the onset of anaphase, centromeres begin to separate
and pull the newly replicated chromosomes toward opposite
sides of the cell. The centromere of each chromosome splits to
form two new chromosomes, each consisting of a single DNA
molecule. By the end of anaphase, 46
chromosomes are present on each side of the cell.
telophase
In the final step of mitosis—telophase—a new membrane
forms around each set of 46 chromosomes. The
spindle fibers disappear and the cytoplasm divides,
producing two new identical “daughter” cells. Each of these
cells can grow and develop, perhaps becoming a mother
to new cells.
Meiosis
Gametes (ova and spermatozoa) reproduce through a process called meiosis
(Greek, meaning lessening). The word gamete comes from the Greek root
gamet, which means either wife (gamete) or husband (gametes) de
pending on its ending. Ova is the plural form of ovum, which means egg; both
words come directly from Latin without change. Spermatozoa is the plural form
of spermatozoon, formed from the Greek spermat, meaning
seed, and the Greek root zôion, meaning animal.
In meiosis, genetic material between similarly structured chromosomes is
intermixed and the number of chromosomes in the four daughter cells
diminishes by half.
Fluid movement

A cell must move various molecules in and out through

the plasma membrane and between compartments
inside the cell.
There are several different ways fluids and solutes
(dissolved substances) move through membranes at the
cellular level.
 In diffusion, solutes move from an area of higher con
centration to an area of lower concentration. This movement
eventually results in an equal distribution of solutes
within the two areas. Diffusion is known as passive
transport because no energy is needed to make it happen.
Like fish traveling downstream, solutes involved in diffusion just go
with the flow.
Osmosis (from the Greek root osm, meaning to push, and the Greek
suffix -sis, which is used to form a noun from a word that was
originally a verb)
is another passive transport method. Unlike diffusion, osmosis involves
the movement of a water (solvent) molecule across the cell membrane
from a dilute solution, one with a high concentration of water
molecules, to a concentrated one, one with a lower concentration of
water.
Osmosis is influenced by the osmotic pressure of a solution. Osmotic
pressure reflects the water-attracting property of a solute. It’s
determined by the number of dissolved particles in a given volume of
solution.
Energy required

Unlike passive transport, active transport requires energy.

Usually, this mechanism moves a substance from an
area of lower concentration to an area of higher
concentration.
Think of this as swimming upstream. When a fish
swims upstream, it uses energy.
  Against the grain
The energy required for a solute to move against a concentration
gradient comes from a substance produced and stored within the
cell, adenosine triphosphate, or ATP.
ATP supplies the energy for solute movement in and out of cells.
Some solutes, such as sodium and potassium, use ATP to move in
and out of cells in a form of active transport called the sodium-
potassium pump.
Other solutes that require active transport to cross cell membranes
include calcium ions, hydrogen ions, amino acids, and certain
sugars.
 Body tissues: Holding it all together

Tissues are groups of similar cells that perform the same

role; each tissue has at least one unique function. Tissues
are classified by structure and function and are divided
into four types:
epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.
Epithelial tissue (the epithelium) is a continuous
cellular sheet that covers the body’s surface, lines body
cavities, and forms certain glands. It contains at least two
types of epithelial cells.
 Endothelium and mesothelium
Epithelial tissue with a single layer of squamous cells attached
to a basement membrane is called endothelium.
Such tissue lines the heart, lymphatic vessels, and blood
vessels. Tissue that lines the surface of serous membranes,
such as the pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum,
is called mesothelium. Epithelial tissue is classified by
the number of cell layers it has and the shape of the cells
on its surface.
 Layer upon layer

Depending on the number of cell layers, epithelial tissue

may be simple or stratified:
• Simple epithelial tissue contains one layer of cells.
• Stratified epithelial tissue has three or more layers.
 Classified by shape

Based on the shape of its surface cells, epithelial tissuemay be

characterized as squamous, columnar, cuboidal,transitional, or
pseudostratified columnar:
• Squamous epithelial tissue has flat surface cells.
• Columnar epithelial tissue has tall,cylindrical,prism shaped surface cells
• Cuboidal epithelial tissue has cube-shaped surface cells.
• Transitional epithelial tissue has a unique arrangement of cell shapes
in a stratified (layered) sheet. This type of tissue can stretch, such as the
bladder does when it’s full.
• Pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissue has one layer of
columnar cells.
Connective tissue
Connective tissue is classified by structure into one
of the following four categories: fibrous, bone,
cartilage, or blood.
Connective tissue is found in or around almost
every organ of the body. Its function is to support,
connect, and transport.
 Fibrous
Fibrous tissue can be dense, loose, or adipose.

• Loose connective tissue has large spaces that separate

the fibers and cells. It contains much intercellular fluid.

• Dense connective tissue provides structural support. It

has a greater fiber concentration.
Adipose tissue (fat) is a specialized type of loose
connective tissue in which a single fat droplet
occupies most of the cell. It cushions internal
organs and acts as a reserve supply of energy
 Bone
Bone is hard, dense tissue with a calcified matrix.
 Cartilage
Cartilage is a flexible matrix with center like gel.
 Blood
Blood is a liquid matrix that contains red and white
blood cells.
Muscle tissue
The three basic types of muscle tissue are striated, cardiac, and
smooth.
 Striated muscle tissue
Striated muscle tissue gets its name from the striped, or
striated, appearance it has when viewed under a micro
scope. All striated muscle tissue capable of voluntary
contraction is called skeletal muscle tissue.
Cardiac and smooth muscle tissue
• Cardiac muscle tissue is striated but it contracts
involuntarily.
• Smooth muscle tissue lacks the striped pattern
of striated tissue; it consists of long, spindle-shaped
cells.
Its activity is stimulated by the autonomic nervous
system and isn’t under voluntary control.
Smooth muscle tissue lines the wall of many internal
organs and other structures, such as the walls of
arteries and veins.
 Nervous tissue
The main function of nervous tissue is communication.
Its primary properties are irritability(the capacity to react to various
physical and chemical agents) and conductivity(the ability to transmit the
resulting reaction from one point to another). Nervous tissue cells may be
neurons or neuroglia.
 Neuron consist of three parts: dendrites, the cell body, and axons.
Like tiny antennas, dendrites receive impulses and conduct them into the
cell body. Axons carry impulses away from the cell body.
 Neuroglia form the support structure of nervous tissue, insulating
and protecting neurons. They’re found only in the central nervous system.