OBSERVATI
ON
Scientificobservation is made under precisely
defined conditions, in a systematic and objective
manner and with careful record keeping.
The major goal is to describe the behavior fully and
as accurately as possible.
But its impossible to observe all of a persons
behavior so researchers choose sample of behavior.
Sampling Behavior
When a complete record of behavior cannot be
obtained, researchers seek to obtain a representative
sample of behavior.
External Validity of the research depends on how
behavior is sampled.
Since the sample represents the larger population the
researcher chooses time, settings, conditions and
participants to enhance the generalizability of the
research.
TimeSampling: researcher seek representative
sample by choosing various time intervals either
systematically or randomly.
Event Sampling: the researcher observes each event
that meets a predetermined definition.
More useful for behavior that occurs infrequently.
Situational Sampling: involves observing behavior in
as many different locations and under as many
different circumstances and conditions as possible.
Situational Sampling enhances the external validity of the
findings.
Subject Sampling: instead of recording behavior of all the
individuals present the researcher either systematically or
randomly chooses the people to observe.
Types of Observation
Observation without Intervention
Naturalistic Observation: the goal of naturalistic
observation is to describe the behavior as it
naturally occurs.
Observation with Intervention
Participant Observation: Descriptive research method in which
the behavior of people is studied as it occurs in its everyday
natural environment and the researcher becomes a part of the
group being observed.
It allows researcher to observe behaviors that are not open to
observation. The researcher plays a dual role he/she observer's
peoples behavior and they actively participate in the situation in
its natural setting.
Types
1. Disguised participant observation (research study on being sane
in insane places)
2. Undisguised participant observation
Ethnography
• Ethnography Field research that emphasizes providing a
very detailed description of a different culture from the
viewpoint of an insider in the culture to facilitate
understanding of it.
• Ethnography is a methodology developed for the study of
cultural anthropology. Ethno means people or folk, and
graphy refers to writing about or describing Something.
Ethnography is a description of a people and/or their
culture.
• Is normally linked to inductive research – a focus on
local interpretations
Aimed at understanding an insider’s perspective:
habits, norms, practices, rituals, patterns of
interaction, rituals
Ethnography involves observation, but not all
observation has to be ethnographic.
Simulation
To investigate certain variables researchers will
sometimes ask participants to act out or simulate
certain roles.
In simulation researcher tells the participants what
to do (but not how to do it).
This permits a researcher to observe what happens
in certain situations that happen infrequently.
Example: Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment
Recording Behavior
Qualitative Records of Behavior
1. Narrative records: provide more or less faithful
reproduction of the behavior as it naturally
occurred. includes the use of audiotape,
videotapes etc
Field Notes: are running descriptions of participants,
events, settings and behaviors.
Considerations when using narrative
records
Records should be made as soon as possible after
behavior is observed.
Contents of the record should be decided before
observing.
Quantitative Measures of Behavior
Quantitative measures involves obtaining
frequency or duration of occurrence when they
seek to describe behaviors or events.
Focus is on frequency of occurrence of particular
behavior instead of description.
Checklist: used to record the presence or absence of something
in the situation under observation.
Problems with Observing
Behavior
Reactivity
Observer bias
Absence of control
Demand characteristics
Problems with Observing
Behavior
Reactivity: Occurs when participants’ behavior
is influenced by the knowledge that they are
being observed and their behavior is being
recorded in some fashion
How to reduce reactivity
Usingunobtrusive measures such as hiding
audio or video recording devices.
Habituation: observer introduces himself
into the situation on many different
occasions until subjects cease to react to
their presence.
Problems with Observing
Behavior
Observe bias
Systematic errors in observation that result from
the observers expectations.
Observer bias cannot be eliminated but controlled:
Observer should be provided with little information
Observer should be kept blind about the hypothesis
goals of the study.
Automatic recording equipment
Problems with Observing
Behavior
Absence of control
Demand Characteristics:
Any feature of the experimental design or procedure
that increases the chances that participants will
detect the true purpose of the study.
Observer Reliability
Inter-observerreliability: the degree to which two
independent observers are in agreement.
It can be increased by training observers.