UNIT V

DIGITAL PROTECTION
 INTRODUCTION
• The modern power systems which have grown both in size and complexity require
fast, accurate and reliable protective schemes to protect major equipment and to
maintain the system stability.
• The conventional protective relays are either of electromechanical or static type.
• The electromechanical relays have several drawbacks such as high burden on
instrument transformers, high operating time, contact problems, etc.
• Though static relays have inherent advantages of compactness, lower burden, less
maintenance and high speed; but they suffer from a number of disadvantages, e.g.
inflexibility, inadaptability to changing system conditions and complexity.
• In the beginning the numerical protection (previously known as digital protection)
philosophy was to use a large computer system for the total protection of the power
system.
• This protection system proved to be very costly and required a large space.
• With tremendous advancement in technology and present downward trend in the
cost of computer hardware, powerful and economical computers are available today.
• New generations of computers tend to make computer relaying a viable alternative
to the traditional relaying system.
• There are many advantages of using computers for power system protection,
compared to currently used conventional relays.
• The computer offers reduced protection costs, better system performance, and more
flexibility than conventional approaches.
• Computers are always active, thus permitting constant monitoring and self checking
of numerical relays.
• As a result, the reliability of the numerical protection system and hence that of the
power system itself, are greatly enhanced.
• Economics and additionally, functionality were probably the main factors that
forced the power industry to accept and cope with the changes brought by
microprocessor microcontroller based numerical relays.
• The main component of the numerical protection scheme is the numerical relay.
• Numerical relays are the latest development in the area of protection.
• These relays acquire the sequential samples of the ac quantities in numeric
(digital) data form through the data acquisition system, and process the data
numerically using an algorithm to calculate the fault discriminants and make trip
decisions.
• Numerical relays have been developed because of tremendous advancement in
VLSI and computer hardware technology.
• They are based on numerical(digital)devices,[Link],
microcontrollers, digital signal processors (DSPs) etc.
• At present microprocessor/microcontroller based numerical relays are widely
used.
• The block schematic diagram of a numerical relay is shown in Fig. 11.1.
• These relays use different relaying algorithms to process the acquired information.
• Microprocessor/micro controller based relays are called numerical relays
specifically if they calculate the algorithm numerically.
• The main features of numerical relays are their economy, compactness, flexibility,
reliability, self monitoring and self-checking capability, multiple functions, low
burden on instrument transformers and improved performance over conventional
relays of electromechanical and static types.
• Major shortcomings of numerical relays are short life cycle, susceptibility to
transients, and setting and testing complexities.
 NUMERICAL RELAY
• The block diagram of a typical numerical relay is shown in Fig. 11.1.
• This relay samples voltages and currents, which, at the power system level, are in
the range of hundreds of kilo volts and kilo amperes respectively.
• The levels of these signals are reduced by voltage and current transformers
(transducers).
• The outputs of the transducers are applied to the signal conditioner (also called
‘analog input subsystem’).
• Signal conditioner is one of the important components of the data acquisition
system (DAS).
• It brings real-world signals into digitizer.
• In this case, the signal conditioner electrically isolates the relay from the power
system, reduces the level of the input voltages, converts currents to equivalent
voltages and removes high frequency components from the signals using analog
filters.
• The relay is isolated from the power system by using auxiliary transformers which
receive analog signals and reduce their levels to make them suitable for use in the
relays.
• Since the A/D converters accept voltage signals only, the current signals are
converted into proportional voltage signals by using I/V converters or by passing
through precision shunt resistors.
• Anti-aliasing filters (which are low-pass filters) are used to prevent aliasing from
affecting relaying functions.
• The outputs of the signal conditioner (the analog input subsystem) are applied to
the analog interface, which includes sample and hold (S/H) circuits, analog
multiplexers and analog-to-digital (A/D) converters.
• These components sample the reduced level signals and convert their analog levels
to equivalent numbers that are stored in memory.
• The status of isolators and circuit breakers in the power system is provided to the
relay via the digital input subsystem and are read into the
microcomputer/microcontroller memory.
• After quantization by the A/D converter, analog electrical signals are represented by
discrete values of the samples taken at specified instants of time.
• The signals in the form of discrete numbers are processed by a relaying algorithm
using numerical methods.
• A relaying algorithm which processes the acquired information is a part of the
software.
• The algorithm uses signal-processing technique to estimate the real and imaginary
components of fundamental frequency voltage and current phasors.
• In some cases, the frequency of the system is also measured.
• These measurements are used to calculate other quantities, such as impedances. The
computed quantities are compared with pre-specified thresholds (settings) to decide
whether the power system is experiencing a fault or not.
• If there is fault in the power system, the relay sends a trip command to circuit
breakers for isolating the faulted zone of the power system.
• The trip output is transmitted to the power system through the digital output
subsystem.
• Numerical relays nave revolutionized all aspects of protection and control.
• Modern numerical relays offer several advantages in terms of protection, reliability, trouble shooting
and fault information and are capable of providing complete protection with added functions like
control and monitoring.
• Most numerical relays are available today with ‘self-check’ feature.
• These relays are capable of periodically checking their hardware and software, and in case a problem
is noticed, the relays give an alarm for corrective action.
• It is extremely easy to service a numerical relay as in most of the cases it requires only certain cards
to be replaced.
• If sufficient spares are maintained at the various locations, the down time of a relay can be
substantially reduced.
• Systems which use numerical relays have the potential for improved system operation which arises
from the increased quantity of information available in the relay.
• This information can be accessed quickly and effectively by means of remote communication links
which result in improved post fault analysis of faults.
• The data so collected can be used in the planning of maintenance programs more realistically and for
interpreting trends and changes of patterns in the data over a period of time.
• In general, all these will result in a significant improvement in the operation of the power system.
•
 Advantages of Numerical Relays
The advantages of numerical relays are discussed below.
(i) Compactness and Reliability
• Numerical relays are compact in size and reliable in operation.
(ii) Flexibility
• Numerical relays offer flexibility because of programmability.
• Some general purpose hardware can be used to perform a variety of protection functions with the
change of stored program only.
• Drastic addition and/or alteration of the protection logic hardly require any hardware replacement.
(iii) Adaptive Capability
• Numerical relays can adapt themselves to changing system conditions by monitoring the
operating quantities from the digital inputs of the relay.
• The behaviour of the processor can be made to change automatically depending on the external
conditions which change with time.
• The basis of this change can be either local information available to the processor, or an external
source such as data link or the central computer system.
(iv) Multiple Functions
• Numerical relays provide many functions that were not available in
electromechanical or static designs.
• These features include multiple setting groups, programmable logic, adaptive
logic, self-monitoring, self-testing,sequence-of-events recording, oscillography,
and ability to communicate with other relays and control computers.
• While these features make the relays very powerful, they also introduce factors,
such as complexity, that were not associated with earlier technologies.
(v) Detailed Logical and Mathematical Capabilities
• The programmer in numerical relaying scheme is free to provide almost any
characteristic within the limits of his understanding.
• Specific protection problems can be broken down into fine details and each
handled separately.
• In addition measurement problem can be stated as mathematical equations and
directly implemented.
(vi) Economic Benefits
• The cost per function of numerical relays is lower compared to the cost of their
electromechanical and static counterparts.
• The reduction in cost is due to the lower cost of components, production equipment
and production techniques.
• Numerical relays provide greater functionality at a reduced price .
(vii) Less Panel Space
• Numerical protection systems require significantly less panel space than the
space required by electromechanical and static systems that provide similar
functions.
• The reduction in size is a result of the high level of integration of the hardware
and the ability of using one physical device for performing multiple protection
functions, such as, overcurrent and distance relaying.
(viii) Low Burden on Transducers (Instrument Transformers)
• Numerical relays impose significantly less burden on transducers (CTs and VTs).
• When relays of the previous generations were used, the ability to provide
protective functions was limited by the burden that could be placed on
transducers.
• This is not the case when numerical relays are used.
• In addition, numerical relays can be programmed to detect saturation of
instrument transformers for minimizing incorrect operations.
(ix) Self-monitoring and Self-testing
• Numerical relays have the ability to perform self-monitoring and self-testing
functions.
• These features reduce the need for routine maintenance because the relays
automatically take themselves out of service and alert the operator of the problem
when they detect functional abnormalities.
(x) Sequence of Events and Oscillography
• Reporting features, including sequence of events recording and oscillography are a natural by
product of numericalprotection systems. These features make it possible to analyze the
performance of the relays as well as system disturbances in a better way at minimum additional
costs.
• (xi) Communication Facility
• Communication makes the relay more intelligent and the operating personnel can set the relay and
also download the fault information.
• It is also possible to upload the revised software to the relay at site without sending the relay back
to the manufacturer.
• The data processed by the relay can be accessed through the relay communication port.
• A separate high-end communicationsystem is also available for numerical relay data
communication and control.
(xii) Metering Facility
• Numerical relays are provided with metering functions and separate panel mounted meters can be
eliminated.
• Some relays can also provide energy meter function.
• With the metering facility in the relay, the operating personnel can view different parameters
online.
(xiii) Memory Action
• Since the pre-fault voltage samples are within the computer memory,
voltage collapse due to short-circuit at relaying point does not
introduce any difficulty when the voltages are used in input quantities.
(xiv) Standardization
• Numerical protection systems are constructed with a standard
hardware feature, and any special feature can be met with modification
of the program only.
• This standardization provides a considerable simplification in
production, testing and maintenance.
 Disadvantages of Numerical Relays
While numerical relays have several advantages, they also suffer form a few disadvantages.
Major disadvantages are follows.
(i) Short Life Cycle
• All microprocessor-based systems, including numerical protection systems, have short life cycles.
• Since each generation of microprocessor based systems increases the functionality as compared
with the previous generation, the pace of change makes the numerical protection systems obsolete
in shorter times. Because of this, it becomes difficult for the users to maintain expertise in using
the latest designs of the equipment.
• Another variation of this disadvantage is in the from of changes in the software used on the
existing hardware platforms.
(ii) Susceptibility to Transients
• Microprocessor-based numerical protection systems are more susceptible to incorrect operations
due to transients because of the nature of the technology compared to the systems built with the
electromechanicaltechnology.
(iii) Setting and Testing Complexities
• Numerical relays, which are designed to replace the functions of electromechanical or
static relays, offer programmable functions that increase the application flexibility
compared with the fixed function relays.
• The multifunction numerical relays, therefore, have a number of settings.
• There may be problems in management of the increased number of settings and in
conduction of functional tests.
• Setting management software is generally available to create, transfer, and track the
relay settings.
• Numerical relays are generally tested by using special testing techniques, specifically
the ability to enable and disable selected functions.
• This increases the possibility that the desired settings may not be invoked after testing.
• In order to ensure that correct setting and logic are activated after the tests are
completed, proper procedures must be followed.
 Multifunction Numerical Relays
• Multifunction numerical relays consolidate protection functions and reduce the
product and installation costs drastically.
• These devices reduce the cost and complexity of the overall application.
• In these relays, self-monitoring is much more than the function of testing and
monitoring the data acquisition system, hardware, memory and software self-
monitoring is also a test to ensure that everything in and about the relay
installation is correct.
• They can provide a diagnosis of its own internal hardware and software and can
also monitor the connected system.
• They can also monitor the health of the instrument transformers (CTs and VTs).
• In numerical relays, the triggering of the fault record, the duration of the
recording, and the type of recording can be specified by the user.
• In addition to integrating the overall protection control scheme into the relay, there
is possibility to extend the benefits of self diagnostics beyond the internal
subsystems of the relay.
• Since the information regarding the health status of the control scheme is provided
to the relay using binary inputs, it is possible to use numerical relay
programmable logic control functions to detect and respond to external control
scheme malfunctions.
COMPARISON BETWEEN ELECTROMECHANICAL
RELAYS AND NUMERICAL RELAYS
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM (DAS)
• Data acquisition is the process of sampling of real-world analog signals and
conversion of the resulting samples into digital numeric values that can be
manipulated by a computer.
• The system which performs data acquisition is called data acquisition system (DAS).
• Data acquisition typically involves the conversion of analog signals into digital values
for processing.
• For numerical relaying, the data acquisition system acquires sequential samples of the
analog ac quantities (voltages and currents) and converts them into digital numeric
values for processing.
• The voltages and currents at the power system level are in the range of hundreds of
kilovolts and kilo amperes respectively.
• The levels of voltage and current signals are reduced by transducers (voltage current
transformers).
• The output of the transducers are applied to the DAS.
• DAS also employ various signal conditioning techniques to adequately
modify various different electrical signals into voltages that can then
be digitized using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
• The main components of DAS are the signal conditioner (analog input
subsystem) and the analog interface.
 Signal Conditioner (Analog Input Subsystem)
• Signal conditioner (also called analog input subsystem) is necessary to make the signals from the transducers
compatible with the analog interface.
• Signal conditioning circuitry converts analog input signals into a form that can be converted to digital values.
• Since the output signals of transducers are often incompatible with data acquisition hardware, the analog
signals must be conditioned to make them compatible.
• Common ways to condition analog signals include the following:
(i) Analog input isolation and scaling
(ii) Current to voltage conversion
(iii) Filtering
• The relay is electrically isolated from the power system by using auxiliary transformers which receive analog
signals from the transducers and reduce their levels to make them suitable for use in the relays, as shown in
Fig. 11.2(a) and (b).
• Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV) which has a high resistance at low voltages and low resistance at high voltages
due to highly nonlinear current-voltage characteristic is used to protect circuits against excessive transient
voltages.
Since the A/D converters can handle voltages only, the current are converted to proportional
voltages by using current to voltage (I/V) converters or by passing the current through
precision shunt resistors.
The phenomenon of appearance of a high frequency signal as a lower frequency signal that
distorts the desired signal is called aliasing. To prevent aliasing from affecting the relaying
functions, anti-aliasing filters (which are low-pass filters) are used along with analog input
isolation block. The block diagram of a typical signal conditioner is shown in Fig. 11.3.
Aliasing
• Post-fault power system signals contain dc offset and harmonic components, in
addition to the major fundamental frequency component.
• In order to convert analog signals to sequences of numbers, an appropriate sampling
rate should be used, because high-frequency components which might be present in
the signal, could be incorrectly interpreted as components of lower frequencies.
• The mechanism of a high-frequency component in an input signal manifesting itself,
as a low-frequency signal is called ‘aliasing’.
• It is the appearance of a high-frequency signal as a lower frequency signal that
distorts the desired signal.
• For explaining the phenomenon of aliasing, let us consider a signal of 550 Hz (11th harmonic
component) as the high-frequency component, as shown in Fig. 11.4(a).
• If this signal is sampled 500 times a second, the sampled values at different instants would be as
shown in Fig. 11.4(b).
• The reconstruction of the sampled sequence, and its interpretation by an algorithm, indicates that
the signal is of the 50 Hz frequency.
• This misrepresentation of the high frequency component as a low- frequency component is
referred to as aliasing.
• Therefore, for obtaining a correct estimate of the component of a selected frequency, the
sampling rate should be chosen in such a manner that components of higher frequencies do not
appear to belong to the frequency of interest.
• Since it is not possible to select a sampling frequency (sampling rate) that would prevent the
appearance of all high frequency components as components of frequency of interest, the analog
signals are applied to low-pass filters and their outputs are processed further.
• This process of band-limiting the input by using low-pass filter removes most of the high-
frequency components.
• Thus the effect of aliasing is removed by filtering the high-frequency components from the input.
• The low-pass filter that accomplishes this function is called an anti-aliasing filter.
 Sampling
• Sampling is the process of converting a continuous time signal, such as a current
or voltage, to a discrete time signal.
• The selected sampling rate should be as high as is practical taking into account the
capabilities of the A/D converter and the processor.
• Modern numerical relays use sampling rate that are as high as 96 samples per
fundamental cycle.
• The sampling theorem states that in order to preserve the information contained in
a signal, it must be sampled at a sampling frequency fs of at least twice the largest
frequency (fm) present in the sampled information (i.e. fs ≥ 2fm).
• The sampling theorem is frequently called the ‘Shannon sampling theorem’, or
‘the Nyquist sampling theorem’.
• Therefore, in order to avoid aliasing error, frequencies above one-half the
sampling frequency must be removed by using anti-aliasing filter (low-pass filter).
 Analog Interface
• The analog interface makes the signal compatible with the processor.
• The outputs of the signal conditioner are applied to the analog interface which
includes sample and hold (S/H) circuits, analog multiplexers and analog to digital
(A/D) converters.
• These components sample the reduced level signals and convert their analog
levels to equivalent numbers that are stored in memory for processing.
• The block diagram of a typical analog interface is shown in Fig. 11.5.
• A sample and hold (S/H) circuit is used to acquire the samples of the time varying
analog signal and keep the instantaneous sampled values constant during the
conversion period of ADC.
• A S/H circuit has two modes of operation namely Sample mode and Hold mode.
• When the logic input is high it is in the Sample mode, and the output follows the
input with unity gain.
• When the logic input is low it is the hold mode and the output of the S/H circuit
retains the last value it had until the command switches for the sample mode.
• The S/H circuit is basically an operational amplifier which charges a capacitor
during the sample mode and retains the value of the change of the capacitor
during the hold mode.
• An analog multiplexer has many input channels and only one output.
• It selects one out of the multiple inputs and transfers it to a common output.
• Any input channel can be selected by sending proper commands to the
multiplexer through the microcomputer.
• Analog to digital (A/D) converters take the instantaneous (sampled) values of the
continuous time (analog) signal, convert them to equivalent numerical values and
provide the numbers as binary outputs that represent the analog signal at the
instants of sampling.
• Thus, after quantization by the A/D converter, analog electrical signals are
represented by discrete values of the samples taken at specified instants of time.
• The signals in the form of discrete numbers are processed by a relaying algorithm
using numerical methods.
• A relaying algorithm which processes the acquired information is a part of the
software.
 NUMERICAL RELAYING ALGORITHMS
• The aim of the most of these algorithms is to extract the fundamental
frequency components from the complex post-fault voltage and current
signals containing a transient dc offset component and harmonic frequency
components in addition to the power frequency fundamental component.
• As the microprocessor requires computationally simple and fast algorithm
in order to perform the relaying functions, only a few algorithms are
suitable for microprocessor implementation.
• Algorithm which are suitable for microprocessor implantation are based
on the solution of differential equation, discrete Fourier transform, Walsh-
Handmaid transform, rationalized Haar transform techniques and Block
Pulse functions (BPF).
 DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM
TECHNIQUE
• In this technique, the algorithm for extracting the fundamental frequency components from the complex
post-fault relaying signals is based on discrete Fourier transform.
• The discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of a data sequence is used to evaluate the Fourier coefficients.
• In this approach, the fundamental Fourier sine and cosine coefficients are obtained by correlating the
incoming data samples with the stored samples of reference fundamental sine and cosine waves, respectively.
• The fundamental Fourier sine and cosine coefficients are respectively equal to the real and imaginary parts of
the fundamental frequency component.
• Using the DFT, the real and imaginary components of the fundamental frequency voltage and current phasors
are calculated.
• The real and reactive components (R and X) of the apparent impendence of the line is then calculated from
these four quantities
 Fourier Representation of Signals
• Fourier series are used to decompose periodic signals into the sum of sinusoidal
components of appropriate amplitude.
• If the periodic signal has a period of T (seconds), then the frequencies of the sinusoidal
components in the Fourier series are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency
(1/T).

(i) Fourier Series with Real Coefficients

The Fourier series expansion of any periodic signal x(t) with period T is given by
• where K = 0, 1, 2, …, ∞ is the integral number of cycle in period T, and w = 2 ∏/T
is the fundamental angular frequency (rad/s).
• The coefficients a0, aK, bK are real numbers and called Fourier coefficients. They
are also called real Fourier coefficients.
• CKis the amplitude of the Kth component, and ⱷK = 90 – ᶲK is the phase angle of
the Kth components.
The Fourier coefficients aK and bK are given by
• The Fourier coefficients associated with the fundamental frequency sine and cosine waves
are called fundamental Fourier since and cosine coefficients.
• The fundamental Fourier coefficients F1 and F2 in Eq. (11.21) are the rms values of the
amplitudes of the fundamental Fourier frequency sine and cosine waves, respectively,
• whereas the fundamental Fourier coefficients b1 and a1 in Eq. (11.18) are the peak values
of the amplitudes of the fundamental frequency sine and cosine waves,respectively.
• By comparison of the Fourier coefficients of Eq. (11.21) with that of Eq. (11.18) the Fourier
coefficients F1 and F2 are expressed in terms b1 and a1, respectively, as follows
(ii) Fourier Series, with Complex Coefficients

Equation (11.18) is known as the trigonometric form of the Fourier series in

which the Fourier coefficients a0, aK and bK are real numbers.
This is also known as Fourier series with real coefficients.
Both since and cosine functions in Eq. (11.18) can be expressed in terms of
exponential functions with imaginary exponents. Therefore,
 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)
• The discrete Fourier transform (DFT) is used to evaluate the Fourier coefficients from N samples of x(t) taken at
time t = 0, Ts, 2Ts, …(N – 1)Ts, where Ts = T/N is the sampling interval.
• Therefore, the input to the DFT is a sequence of samples (numbers) rather than a continuous function of time x(t).
• The sequence of samples (i.e. data sequence) which results from periodically sampling the continuous signal x(t)
at intervals of Ts is referred to as a discrete-time signal.
• A system with bothcontinuous and discrete-time signals is called a sampled-data system.
• A system with only discrete-time signals is called a discrete-time system.
• The DFT may be regarded as a discrete-time signal processing technique for the evaluation of the Fourier
coefficients.
• The DFT equation is obtained from Eq. (11.36) by replacing the continuous functions by discrete-time values and
the integration by a summation.
• If the periodic function x(t) is sampled N times per period at the sampling interval of Ts, the N samples represent
the period T, so T = NTs.
• These N samples of x(t) form the data sequence x m, m = 0, 1, 2, …(N – 1).
 • Therefore, the DFT of a data sequence xm, m = 0, 1, 2, …(N – 1) is
defined as:

• The Fourier series of Eq. (11.18) allows k to be any integer.

• The DFT uses N data samples x0, x1, x2, …xN–1, which allows us to solve for only N unknown coefficients.
• The transform coefficient number k determines the number of cycles in period T and identifies the frequency
as k/T Hz.
• The computation of Fourier coefficients by using Eq. (11.38) involves complex arithmetic which makes the
computation difficult with a microprocessor.
• Therefore, for microprocessor implementation of the DFT, separate equations for real and imaginary parts
are used, instead of using the DFT equation in complex form
• Equation (11.38) can be written as follows.
• The DFT Eq. (11.40) and (11.41) can also be obtained directly from Eq. (11.19)
for ak and bk by replacing the continuous functions by discrete-time values and
integration by a summation.
• But this long procedure to obtain Eq. (11.40) and (11.41) has been adopted to
explain the discrete Fourier transform (DFT).
• The DFT Eqs. (11.40) and (11.41) can easily be implemented on microprocessors
in order to obtain the Fourier coefficients corresponding to any frequency
component.
• The values of k identifies the frequency.
 Computation of the Apparent Impedance
• The main objective of the digital distance relaying of transmission lines is to
determine the phasor representations of the voltage and the current signals from
their sampled values, and thereafter to calculate the apparent impedance of the line
from the relay location to the fault point in order to determine whether the fault lies
within the relay’s protective zone or not.
• Since impedance of the linear system is defined in terms of the fundamental
frequency voltage and current sinusoidal waves, it is necessary to extract the
fundamental frequency components of voltage and current signals from the
complex post fault voltage and current signals.
• The real and imaginary components of the fundamental frequency voltage phasor,
i.e. Vs and Vc, and the real and imaginary components of the fundamental frequency
current phasor, i.e. Is and Ic are obtained by using Eqs. (11.49) to (11.52) for the
fullcycle window algorithm or Eq. (11.53) to (11.56) for half-cycle window
algorithm.
• For distance relaying, the half-cycle data window algorithm is preferable.
• Knowing Vs, Vc, Is and Ic, the phasor representations of the fundamental
frequency components of voltage and current signals are expressed in complex
form as:

The magnitudes (rms values) and phase angles of the fundamental frequency voltage and current phasor are then
given by
 • Computation of apparent impedance through Eq. (11.66) involves the time
consuming operations of squaring and square-rooting. Therefore, in order to avoid
the square-rooting operation, the real and reactive components (R and X) of the
apparent impedance are calculated as follows.

Equations (11.68) and (11.69) are programmed to determine R and X from the real and imaginary components of the
fundamental frequency voltage and current phasor i.e. Vs, Vc, Is and Ic.
The program flowchart for the computation of R and X using half-cycle data window DFT algorithm is shown in Fig. 11.7.