Chapter 3
Crop Water Requirement
1
Objectives
• Define the crop water requirement (CWR).
• Identify the method of estimation of CWR based on climatic
conditions and crop characteristics.
• Distinguish reference evapotranspiration and actual
evapotranspiration.
• Evaluate the performance of irrigation systems using performance
indicators.
• Identify the types of irrigation efficiencies. 2
Crop Water Requirement
• It is the total amount of water required by the crop in a given period of time for
normal growth, under field conditions.
• It includes evapotranspiration, water used by crops for metabolic growth, water
lost during application of water and the water required for special operations such
as land preparation, tillage and salt leaching etc.
• CWR = Consumptive use (Cu) + losses (Wl) + water required for special
operation (Ws)
Q. What are the aims of crop water requirement study?
3
Aims of Crop Water Requirement Study
• To decide possible cropping pattern of area.
• Effective use of available water.
• Plan and design an irrigation project.
• Plan water resource development.
• Assess irrigation requirement of an area.
• Management of water supply from sources.
• Ensuring adequate crop growth and yield.
4
Duty, delta, base period
• Duty of irrigation refers to the no. of hectares (acres) of land that can be irrigated by a
specific volume of water over a defined period.
It is affected by crop type, climate and season, useful rainfall, type of soil and
efficiency of cultivation method.
Its used for Water Management, Cost-Effective Irrigation, Sustainability.
• Delta (Δ) of a crop refers to the total depth of water needed by the crop during a specific
period of its growth. Delta=(volume of water)/(area of irrigation land)
It represents the difference in water content in the soil that needs to be replenished to
maintain optimal crop growth.
it also expressed as crop water requirement for a particular growth stage or season.5
• Base period refers to the time interval during which a certain amount of water is used to
irrigate a crop over a field.
It is the time between first watering of crops at the time of its sowing and the last
watering of crops before harvesting.
Relationship between Duty, Delta and Base period
• The volume of water applied to this crop during B days at 1 /sec.
V = (1 x 60 x 60 x 24 x B) = 86400 B
• Duty, 1 /sec of water supplied for B days/irrigates D hectares ()of land.
• So total depth of water supplied to this land (Delta) = Volume/Area = 86400B/D
• Delta = ∆ = 8.64 B / D (meters)
6
Class work
• Find the delta of a crop when its irrigate 4.32 of land in one cumecs within the growing
period of four months. Assume all months as 30 days.
• A crop has a total water requirement of 800 mm per hectare, and the duty (D) of water
for this crop is 1.5 hectares per cumecs. Calculate the base period (B) for this crop,
assuming the crop's grow in 10 field.
7
Sources of water for Crop Use
• Effective Precipitation (ER): is the part of precipitation which is used by crop as soil
water reserve. It is the precipitation falling during the growing period of a crop that is
available to meet the evapotranspiration needs of the crop.
ER = Total rainfall (P) – Runoff (R) – deep percolation (PW)
• Gross Irrigation requirements (IRg): It refers to the amount of water applied to the
field from the start of land preparation to harvest of the crop together with the water lost
through distributaries and field channels.
IRg = CWR – (ER + ∆SW + ∆GW)
• Net Irrigation requirements: refers to the amount of water needed to replenish soil
moisture deficit in the crop field.
IRn = IRg x Efficiency of water application = Cu – ER - conveyance losses 8
• Ground Water Contribution for Crop Use (∆GW): refers to the water used by crops due
to capillary rise in case of shallow water tables.
• Soil Water Contribution for Crop Use (∆SW): It refers to the difference in moisture
content at the time of sowing and harvesting of the crops that may be. positive or negative
CWR = ER + IRg + ∆SW + ∆GW
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Evapotranspiration (ET)
• Evapotranspiration (ET): refers to the total amount of water lost from the soil and
plants through evaporation and transpiration.
It represents the combined water loss from both soil surfaces and plant surfaces in a
given area.
Evaporation is the process by which water is transferred from the soil surface or
water bodies into the atmosphere due to solar radiation and wind.
Transpiration is the process by which water is absorbed by plant roots from the soil
and then released as water vapor through small pores in the leaves called stomata.
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Types of Evapotranspiration
• Reference Evapotranspiration (ET₀):
ET₀ is the evapotranspiration rate of a reference crop, often a well-watered grass crop that grows
under standard conditions. It serves as a baseline for estimating the evapotranspiration of other crops.
It is measured under conditions of unlimited water availability and typical weather, and the reference
crop is chosen to represent an average crop that doesn't have any specific water stress.
• Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc):
ETc represents the actual evapotranspiration of a specific crop, which is typically higher than the
reference crop during active growth.
ETc is calculated using a crop coefficient (Kc), which adjusts the reference evapotranspiration (ET₀)
for the crop type and its growth stage:
ETc=Kc×ETo
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Factors Affecting Evapotranspiration
• Climate: temperature, humidity, wind speed, solar radiation.
• Soil condition: primarily soil moisture.
• Vegetation Type: crops with large leaf areas tend to have higher evapotranspiration than
smaller crops.
• Plant Growth Stage: During the vegetative stage evapotranspiration is relatively low.
However, during flowering and fruiting stages evapotranspiration peaks because plants
have larger leaf areas and more water is required for their metabolic processes.
• Soil Texture: Soils that are more permeable allow water to drain quickly, affecting the
water availability for plants and thus reduce the rate of evapotranspiration.
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Consumptive use (Cu)
• Consumptive use: is the evapotranspiration plus the water used by plants for metabolic
activities which is hardly 1 % of ET
It is the water required by plants to fulfill the evapotranspiration needs of crops. (FAO)
It is the total amount of water used by the plants in transpiration (building of plant
tissues etc) and evaporation from adjacent soils or from plant leaves in any specified
time period. (S.K. GARG).
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Determination of Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc)
1. The FAO Penman-Monteith Equation (Standard Method): is one of the most widely
accepted methods for estimating reference evapotranspiration (ET₀) and crop
evapotranspiration (ETc). This method takes into account various climate variables like
temperature, humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation.
where
• ET₀ = Reference evapotranspiration (mm/day)
• Δ = Slope of the saturation vapor pressure curve (kPa/°C)
• Rₙ = Net radiation at the crop surface (MJ/m²/day)
• G = Soil heat flux density (MJ/m²/day)
• γ = Psychrometric constant (kPa/°C)
• T = Mean daily air temperature at 2 m height (°C)
• u₂ = Wind speed at 2 m height (m/s)
• es = Saturation vapor pressure (kPa)
• ea = Actual vapor pressure (kPa) 14
2. The Hargreaves Equation (Simplified Method for ET₀): is another simplified method
used to calculate reference evapotranspiration (ET₀) using only temperature data.
Where
• ET₀ = Reference evapotranspiration (mm/day)
• Tmax = Maximum temperature (°C)
• Tmin = Minimum temperature (°C)
• Tavg = Average temperature (°C)
• Ra = Extraterrestrial radiation (MJ/m²/day), which can be calculated based on latitude and
time of year. 15
Determination of Crop Evapotranspiration in Standard Condition
• Crop coefficient (Kc) varies throughout the growing season of a crop, reflecting changes
in the crop’s growth stage.
• The crop coefficient accounts for how much water a specific crop uses relative to a
reference crop. There are typically three main stages of crop growth:
Initial Stage (Kc_ini): Early growth stage, where the crop is just establishing itself and has a smaller
canopy.
Mid-Season Stage (Kc_mid): Full canopy development, where the crop has reached
its maximum growth and water demand is at its highest.
Late Season Stage (Kc_late): The crop is nearing maturity, and evapotranspiration
decreases as the plant begins to dry out. 16
Crop Coefficient Values for Different Crops
Mid-Season Late Season
Crop Type Initial (Kc_ini)
(Kc_mid) (Kc_late)
Corn (maize) 0.3 – 0.4 1.1 – 1.2 0.5 – 0.7
Wheat 0.3 – 0.4 1.0 – 1.1 0.5 – 0.7
Rice 0.4 – 0.5 1.1 – 1.2 0.8 – 1.0
Tomatoes 0.4 – 0.5 1.1 – 1.2 0.6 – 0.7
Cotton 0.4 – 0.5 1.1 – 1.2 0.6 – 0.7
Alfalfa 0.3 – 0.4 1.0 – 1.2 0.6 – 0.8
Soybeans 0.3 – 0.4 1.0 – 1.1 0.6 – 0.7
Potatoes 0.4 – 0.5 1.0 – 1.1 0.5 – 0.6
Barley 0.3 – 0.4 1.0 – 1.1 0.5 – 0.6 17
According to FAO irrigation and drainage paper it classified in four stage
• Initial stage: The initial stage runs from planting date to approximately 10% ground
cover.
• Crop development stage: The crop development stage runs from 10% ground cover to
effective full cover. Effective full cover for many crops occurs at the initiation of
flowering.
• Mid-season stage: The mid-season stage runs from effective full cover to the start of
maturity. The start of maturity is often indicated by the beginning of the ageing,
• Late season stage: The late season stage runs from the start of maturity to harvest or full
senescence.
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The curve represents the changes in the crop coefficient over the length of the growing season.
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Steps for constructing the crop coefficient curve
1. Divide the growing period into four general growth stages that describe crop phonology
or development (initial, crop development, mid-season, and late season stage), and
identify the three Kc values that correspond to Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end from Table.
2. Adjust the Kc values to the frequency of wetting and/or climatic conditions of the growth
stages.
3. Construct a curve by connecting straight line segments through each of the four growth
stage.
During the crop development and late season stage, Kc varies linearly between the Kc at the
end of the previous stage (Kc prev) and the Kc at the beginning of the next stage (Kc next),
which is Kc end in the case of the late season stage: 20
Where
• I = day number within the growing season [1.. length of the growing season],
• Kci = crop coefficient on day i,
• (Lstage) = length of the stage under consideration [days],
• (Lprev) = sum of the lengths of all previous stages [days]
21
Class work
Construct Kc curve of wheat? And find Kc at 28 and 110
days? By using the table data
stage Kc No days
Initial 0.3 15
Development 30
Mid season 1 60
Late season 0.5 15
22
Questions
• Identify the difference between evapotranspiration and consumptive use?
• Which are the highest Kc value from rice and wheat? Why?
• what is the difference between gross irrigation requirement and net irrigation
requirement? Which are used for design? Why?
• Why the Kc value of crop at mid-season has highest value than initial and late-season?
• At late season stage of crop growing stage we gate decreasing slop of Kc curve. Why?
• Compare penman monteith and hargreave equation? Which are more preferable for
determining evapotranspiration?
• If the soil moisture content at the time of sawing more than at the harvesting time. Is
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it
Irrigation scheduling and irrigation efficiencies.
• Irrigation scheduling is the process of determining when and how much water should be
applied to crops to meet their water requirements while minimizing waste and ensuring
optimal plant growth.
• The two scheduling parameters of field irrigation scheduling are the depth of irrigation and
interval of irrigation.
• Depth of irrigation refers to the amount of water applied to the soil during an irrigation.
It is measured in terms of the depth of water usually in millimeters that infiltrates the
soil profile and is available for crop use.
Proper irrigation depth is critical because it ensures that the water reaches the root zone
of the crops, promoting healthy growth while avoiding water wastage or overwatering.
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The irrigation depth is the amount of water required to restore the soil moisture to a level
where it is ideal for crop growth.
Here's how you can calculate it using different parameters:
Irrigation Depth(d)=𝛾
𝑠×𝐷×(𝐹𝐶−𝑃𝑊𝑃)×𝑃
Where
• s = Apparent specific gravity of soil
• D = Effective root zone depth in m
• Fc = water content of soil at FC
• PWP = Water content of soil at PWP
• P = depletion factor 25
Explanation of the Parameters:
• Apparent specific gravity of soil (𝛾𝑠 ): It is the ratio of the mass of soil particles to the
mass of an equal volume of water.
• Effective root zone depth (D): This is the depth of soil that the plant roots can access for
water.
• Field capacity (𝐹𝐶 ): This is the amount of water the soil can hold after it has drained
freely.
• Permanent wilting point (PWP): This is the moisture content at which the soil water is no
longer available to the plant, causing it to wilt permanently.
• Depletion factor (P): This factor determines how much of the available soil water can be
depleted before irrigation is needed. 26
The major irrigation depth factors
• Root zone depth (D)
• Soil water holding capacity (FC – PWP)
• Climate and evapotranspiration (ET)
• Crop type and growth stage
• Soil texture and permeability
• Precipitation (Rainfall)
• Soil permeability
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Example
• A farmer is planning irrigation for a crop that has a root zone depth of 1 meter. The soil in
the field has a unit weight of 15kN/m³. The water content at field capacity is 0.35 m³/m³,
and the water content at the permanent wilting point is 0.15 m³/m³. The farmer wants to
irrigate the crop when 60% of the available soil water has been depleted.
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irrigation interval (T)
• Irrigation interval refers to the time between two successive irrigation events, or how often
irrigation should be applied to meet crop water requirements.
• It is a crucial aspect of irrigation scheduling, as it helps to optimize water usage while
ensuring that crops receive adequate water at the right times.
• The irrigation interval depends on several factors including the crop's water needs, the soil's
water-holding capacity, climate and the method of irrigation used.
• The irrigation interval can be calculated using the following formula:
• Irrigation Interval=(Available Water in Root Zone)/(Crop Water Requirement per Day)
• T=AW/CWR
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Irrigation Scheduling in a Command Area
• Is the total amount of water applied in a given irrigation field.
Q.t=(10/Ea)*AW*A
Where
• Q = flow rate(l/s)
• t = time of flow(s)
• Ea = application efficiency
• AW = available water or irrigation depth (m)
• A = command area (
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• The total volume of water diverted at the headwork will determined by considering
the losses of water in conveyance and distribution canals. So used the above equation
by using project efficiency instead of application efficiency.
Question
What are the difference between project efficiency and application efficiency?
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Example
An irrigation site in an irrigation scheme has soil sample with a field Capacity of 28% and
the permanent wilting point of 8%.
• Determine the water storage capacity of the soil if the depth of root zone is 0.8 m. Take dry
unit weight of soil as 15 KN/m2.
• Irrigation water is applied when the moisture content of the soil decreases to 18%.
Determine the water depth required to be applied if the water application efficiency is
80%.
• Assume the peak Evapotranspiration rate of 15 mm/day, calculate the suggested irrigation
intervals in days. 32
Performance evaluation of irrigation systems
• Performance evaluation of irrigation systems is a main aspect of managing water
resources efficiently.
• It helps in assessing how well an irrigation system meets the intended goals of water
distribution, crop productivity and sustainability.
• A well-evaluated system ensures optimal water use, reduces waste and maximizes crop
yields.
• Performance evaluation can be done at various levels: the field level, the system level and
the regional level.
• The evaluation should consider various parameters, such as water delivery efficiency,
uniformity of water distribution and overall system efficiency. 33
Water Delivery consideration
• Adequacy of Water Supply: Evaluating whether the irrigation system can supply
the required water volume for crops at the right time.
• Reliability: The consistency with which the system can meet water demand
during different growing seasons.
• Timing: Assessing whether irrigation is applied at optimal times to meet the
crop’s growth stage and evapotranspiration needs.
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Irrigation performance indicators
• Conveyance efficiency ( Ec)
• Water application Efficiency (Ea)
• Water storage efficiency (Es)
• Distribution Efficiency (Ed)
• Water Use Efficiency
Crop Water Use Efficiency
Field Water Use Efficiency
• Project Efficiency (Ep)
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Conveyance efficiency ( Ec)
• It refers to the efficiency with which water is transported through an irrigation system from
the source to field.
• It is a measure of how much water is lost due to evaporation, seepage leakage in the
conveyance system.
• High conveyance efficiency indicates that a larger portion of the water supplied by the
system reaches its intended field, whereas lower efficiency implies higher losses.
Ec=*100%
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Improving Conveyance Efficiency
• Canal Lining: Lining unlined canals can significantly reduce water losses due to seepage,
thus improving conveyance efficiency.
• Piped Systems: Replacing open canals with piped irrigation systems can reduce water loss
from evaporation and seepage.
• Water Flow Control: Installing gates, valves and other devices to regulate water flow and
avoid overflows in the canals can improve the system's efficiency.
• Advanced Technology: Using sensors, automated control systems and remote monitoring
tools can help detect leaks and inefficiencies in the system more quickly, that allowing for
take corrective actions.
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Water application Efficiency (Ea)
• It refers to the effectiveness with water is applied to the soil and made available to the crop.
• It is a measure of how much of the water that is delivered to a field is effectively used by the
crop for growth, as opposed to being lost due to surface runoff, deep percolation or
evaporation.
• It reflects how well the system applies water to meet crop needs while minimizing water
losses.
Ea = *100%
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To improve water application efficiency, consider the following
methods
• Adopt efficient irrigation systems such as drip irrigation and sprinklers, which minimize
evaporation and runoff.
• Optimize irrigation scheduling to irrigate at the right times and amounts.
• Maintain irrigation infrastructure by regularly checking for leaks, clogs and ensuring
proper system calibration.
• Improve field design by leveling the land to reduce water wastage.
• Use advanced technologies like smart controllers and automated systems to regulate water
use based on real-time conditions.
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Water storage efficiency (Es)
• It refers to the ability of an irrigation system or storage facility (reservoirs, ponds or tanks)
to store water effectively while minimizing losses due to evaporation, seepage and other
inefficiencies.
• The goal is to maximize the amount of water available for future use, while minimizing
water loss during storage.
Es =
Water Stored for Use: The amount of water that is effectively stored and available for
irrigation.
Total Water Collected: The total amount of water that is captured or diverted into the
storage facility. 40
Improving Water Storage Efficiency (Es)
• Covering Storage Facilities: Using covers such as shade nets, floating covers or green
algae mats can significantly reduce evaporation losses by limiting exposure to direct
sunlight and wind.
• Sealing Reservoirs and Tanks: Lining reservoirs with materials like clay, concrete or
plastic membranes can reduce seepage and prevent water from leaking out of the facility.
This is especially important in earthen reservoirs.
• Improved Water Harvesting Techniques: Use efficient rainwater harvesting systems that
channel water directly into storage facilities with minimal exposure to the atmosphere to
reducing the risk of evaporation.
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Cont…
• Regular Maintenance: Ensuring that storage facilities are regularly cleaned, repaired and
maintained helps minimize the loss of water due to damage, seepage, or debris
accumulation.
• Use of Underground Storage: Underground storage systems, like underground tanks or
cisterns that minimize evaporation losses as they are less exposed to environmental factors
• Minimize Water Handling Time: Reduce the time water spends in open storage by
improving the efficiency of water distribution systems. This limits exposure to evaporation
and helps maintain water storage levels
42
Distribution Efficiency (Ed)
• It refers to the measures how uniformly water is applied to the field along the irrigation
run.
• It is expressed as a percentage and indicates the consistency of water distribution.
Ed = (1-)*100%
• d = average depth of water penetration.
• yav= average deviation from d.
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Crop Water Use Efficiency (CWUE)
• It refers to the ability of a crop to produce a certain amount of yield per unit of water
consumed during its growth cycle.
• It is a critical for evaluating how effectively water is being used in agricultural production,
especially in water-scarce regions.
• High CWUE means that crops are utilizing water efficiently to produce a higher yield.
CWUE =
44
To improve CWUE
• Adopt Efficient Irrigation Techniques: Use drip irrigation or micro-sprinklers.
• Soil Water Management: Implement soil moisture management techniques such as
irrigation scheduling based on soil moisture content.
• Reduce Water Loss: Mulching, land leveling and field drainage.
• Optimize Fertilizer Use: Use fertilizers and soil amendments efficiently to avoid nutrient
imbalances.
• Improve Crop Management Practices: Techniques such as crop rotation can improve
soil health and structure.
45
Field Water Use Efficiency
• It refers to the ratio of the yield produced by a crop to the total amount of water used in a
field, including both irrigation and rainfall.
• It is a measure of how efficiently water is utilized to produce agricultural output at the field
level.
• Higher FWUE means that the crops are using the available water more effectively.
FWUE =
46
Project Efficiency (Ep)
• It refers to the overall effectiveness of an irrigation project or system in terms of its ability
to deliver the required amount of water for crop production and achieve the intended
agricultural or economic goals.
• It evaluates the system’s performance based on various factors like water delivery, cost-
effectiveness, resource utilization and overall impact on agricultural output.
• High project efficiency ensures that the irrigation system works as planned, providing
sufficient water to crops while minimizing losses and optimizing resource use.
• It is the product of all efficiency
Ep = Ec*Ea*Ed
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Example 1
A field irrigation system for applying water and a storage reservoir. The project aims to
irrigate a 100-hectare farm growing wheat. The total water supplied from the reservoir is
10,000 cubic meters, but due to losses in the canal only 8,000 cubic meters reach the crops
and the crop uses 6,000 cubic meters. The crop yield is 8 tons per hectare and 3,000 cubic
meters of water is stored in the reservoir after the growing season. Using the data provided
calculate the Conveyance Efficiency (Ec), Water Application Efficiency (Ea), Water
Storage Efficiency (Es), Water Use Efficiency (WUE) and Project Efficiency (Ep) of the
irrigation system.
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Example 2
• Explain the term distribution efficiency and evaluate it, If the irrigation depth data is
as follow in the table
0.5 0.75 0.9 1.2
0.3 0.6 0.8 1
0.1 0.4 0.6 0.7
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End of chapter 3
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