Module-4 Exhaust Emission & Alternate Sources

Exhaust gas pollutants and their effects on environment, Emission norms, IC engine
fuels types, extraction& availability, BIO Fuels – Production and impact. Ethanol
engines, CNG vehicles- operation, advantages& disadvantages, over view of Hydrogen
- fuel cell vehicles, advantages & disadvantages, IC engine/ electric hybrid vehicles
over view, layout, transmission & control system, solar powered vehicles- wind
powered vehicles, super capacitors, supply rails
Different air pollutants
The following are the major pollutants from motor vehicles:
Particulate matter (PM). These particles of soot and metals give smog its murky
color. Fine particles - less than one-tenth the diameter of a human hair - pose the most
serious threat to human health, as they can penetrate deep into lungs. PM is a direct
(primary) pollution and a secondary pollution from hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides,
and sulfur dioxides. Diesel exhaust is a major contributor to PM pollution.
Hydrocarbons (HC). These pollutants react with nitrogen oxides in the presence of
sunlight to form ground level ozone, a primary ingredient in smog. Though beneficial
in the upper atmosphere, at the ground level this gas irritates the respiratory system,
causing coughing, choking, and reduced lung capacity.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx). These pollutants cause lung irritation and weaken the body's
defenses against respiratory infections such as pneumonia and influenza. In addition,
they assist in the formation of ground level ozone and particulate matter.
Carbon monoxide (CO). This odorless, colorless, and poisonous gas is formed by the
combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline and is emitted primarily from cars and
trucks. When inhaled, CO blocks oxygen from the brain, heart, and other vital organs.
Fetuses, newborn children, and people with chronic illnesses are especially susceptible
to the effects of CO.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2). Power plants and motor vehicles create this pollutant by burning
sulfur- containing fuels, especially diesel. Sulfur dioxide can react in the atmosphere to
form fine particles and poses the largest health risk to young children and asthmatics.
Hazardous air pollutants (toxics). These chemical compounds have been linked to
birth defects, cancer, and other serious illnesses. The Environmental Protection
Agency estimates that the air toxics emitted from cars and trucks -which include
Benzene, acetaldehyde, and 1,3-butadiene-account for half of all cancers caused by
air pollution.
Greenhouse gases. Motor vehicles also emit pollutants, such as carbon dioxide, that
contribute to global climate change. In fact, cars and trucks account for over one-fifth
of the United States' total global warming pollution; transportation, which includes
freight, trains, and airplanes, accounts for around thirty percent of all heat-trapping
gas emissions.
Photochemical smog
•Photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants that are formed when nitrogen
oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react to sunlight.
•It tends to occur more often in summer, because that is when we have the most
sunlight
•Photochemical smog is formed when pollutants like hydrocarbons and nitric
oxide interact with sunlight to form chemicals like NO2, Peroxyacyl nitrate
(PAN), ozone, acrolein and formaldehyde. Nitrogen dioxide formed is a brown
gas which contributes to the haze
Harmful effects of photochemical smog
•The components of photochemical smog are ozone, nitric oxide, acrolein,
formaldehyde and peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN).
•It affects our health and also causes damage to industrial materials
•Both ozone and PAN cause eye irritations. Ozone and nitric oxide (NO) can
irritate the nose and throat and their high concentration causes a headache, chest
pain, dryness of the throat, cough and difficulty in breathing.
•Photochemical smog leads to cracking of rubber and extensive damage to plant
life.
•It also causes corrosion of metals, stones, building materials, rubber and
painted surfaces.
Controlling photochemical smog
•To control or reduce the formation of photochemical smog, we need to control the
primary
precursors such as NO2 and hydrocarbons, the secondary precursors such as ozone
and peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN).
•The main source of these pollutants is from automobile exhaust. By using catalytic
converters in the automobiles, the release of nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons can be
prevented.
•A catalytic converter uses a reduction catalyst composed of platinum and rhodium. It
helps reduce nitrogen oxides by removing nitrogen atoms from nitrogen oxide
molecules (NO and NO2).
•This lets the free oxygen form oxygen gas. Then, the nitrogen atoms attached to the
catalyst react with each other. This reaction creates nitrogen gas (N2)
Emission standard
•Emission standards are the legal requirements governing air pollutants released into
the atmosphere.
•Emission standards set quantitative limits on the permissible amount of specific air
pollutants that may be released from specific sources over specific timeframes.
•They are generally designed to achieve air quality standards and to protect human life.
Different regions and countries have different standards for vehicle emissions.
•As vehicle populations grow and cities become more congested the allowable
emissions from engines have been lowered to maintain air quality in major cities.
•The pollutants from vehicles cause several health problems, leads to formation of
smog and affects environment.
•Many countries are aiming at achieving safe concentrations of these pollutants by
regulating their level of emissions.
•Emission standards are requirements that set specific limits to the amount of pollutants
that can be released into the environment.
•These emission standards regulate pollutants released by automobiles, industry, power
plants and diesel generators etc.
•Generally these standards regulate the emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides,
particulate matter (PM) or soot, carbon monoxide and volatile hydrocarbons. These
emission standards puts limits for conventional pollutants and regulate green house
gases particularly carbon dioxide.
MOTOR VEHICLES ACT
The Motor Vehicles Act, passed in the year 1988 by the Indian Parliament, regulates
almost all aspects of road transport vehicles. It has provisions for traffic regulations,
vehicle insurance, registration of motor vehicles, controlling permits and penalties. The
Act came into force from 1 July 1989
Table : Emission standards for passenger cars
FUELS, FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEMS FOR SI AND CI ENGINES
Conventional fuels
Conventional fuel used in the automobiles are gasoline and diesel fuel.
Gasoline or Petrol •It is a mixture of large number of hydrocarbons
•It is lightest and most volatile liquid mainly used as motor fuel
•It is obtained by fractional distillation from crude oil
•Calorific value:48000 kJ/k
Diesel •The liquid fuel distilled after gasoline and kerosene
•These fuels are used in diesel engines
•It evaporates slowly when compared to petrol as it is heavier
•Calorific value:44800 kJ/kg
Alternative fuels
•Biodiesel is a renewable fuel that can be manufactured from vegetable oils, animal
fats, or recycled cooking grease for use in diesel vehicles.
•Hydrogen is a potentially emissions- free alternative fuel that can be produced from
domestic resources for use in fuel cell vehicles.
•Natural gas is a domestically abundant gaseous fuel that can have significant fuel cost
advantages over gasoline and diesel fuel.
•Ethanol is a widely used renewable fuel made from corn and other plant materials. It
is blended with gasoline for use in vehicles.
•Propane is a readily available gaseous fuel that has been widely used in vehicles
throughout the world for decades.
BIOFUELS
The use of biofuels (e.g., bio-ethanol and biodiesel) in the transport sector can save
significant amounts of fossil fuels and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Internal
combustion engines (ICEs) can run on bio-ethanol manufactured from biomass or
waste through biochemical processes. Agricultural feedstock such as sugar beet and
wheat (in Europe), corn (in the US) and sugar cane (in Brazil and other emerging
countries), or even ligno-cellulosic materials such as wood, pulp fibres, papers,
agriculture and industrial residues and waste can be broken down by hydrolysis to
produce simple sugars, which are then fermented to produce bio-ethanol.
While ethanol production from primary agriculture feedstock is based on commercial
technologies, the use of ligno-cellulosic materials requires technologies that are still
under industrial demonstration. Gasoline-ethanol blends with 5% to 10% ethanol
(called E5 and E10, respectively) can fuel conventional gasoline vehicles. Above these
proportions, ethanol can cause corrosion in certain parts of conventional vehicles.
However, corrosion may be avoided with relatively inexpensive engine modifications.
A number of manufacturers produce flex-fuel vehicles (FFVs) that are capable to run
on gasoline- ethanol blends from 0% to 85% ethanol (E85). Ethanol is mostly blended
with gasoline rather than with diesel because of its low ability to ignite (i.e. low cetane
rating), which is irrelevant in spark ignition (SI) ICEs, but fundamental in compression
ignition (CI), or diesel engines. However, diesel-ethanol blends are also used in CI
engines with some engine modifications and the use of cetane improvers.
Compressed natural gas (CNG)
Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a popular alternative fuel for vehicles that are
gaining traction due to its environmental and economic benefits. CNG is a clean-
burning fuel that produces lower emissions than traditional gasoline or diesel, and it
can also be less expensive to use..
Advantages of CNG
• Lower Emissions: CNG is a clean-burning fuel that produces fewer emissions
than traditional gasoline or diesel. When burned, it produces significantly lower
levels of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter. This makes it
a more environmentally friendly option for vehicles.
•Cost Savings: CNG is often less expensive than gasoline or diesel, which can result
in significant cost savings for drivers and fleet operators. The cost of CNG can vary
depending on location and supply, but in many cases, it is considerably cheaper than
traditional fuels.
•Energy Security: CNG is domestically produced, which can improve energy
security and reduce reliance on foreign oil. This can also reduce the impact of
fluctuations in global oil prices.
•Longer Engine Life: CNG burns cleaner than traditional fuels, which can result in
less engine wear and longer engine life. This is because CNG produces less carbon
build-up, which can reduce engine performance over time.
Disadvantages of CNG
•Limited Range
One of the main disadvantages of CNG vehicles is their limited range. CNG has a
lower energy density than gasoline, which means that a CNG vehicle may need to
refuel more frequently than a gasoline-powered vehicle. This can be an issue for drivers
who need to travel long distances.
•Limited Fueling Infrastructure
Another disadvantage of CNG vehicles is the limited availability of CNG fuelling
stations. While the number of CNG fuelling stations is growing, they are still not as
widely available as gasoline stations. This can make it difficult for drivers to find a
fuelling station when they need one.
•High Upfront Costs
CNG vehicles can be more expensive than traditional gasoline or diesel vehicles. This
is because they require special fuel storage tanks and other equipment to use CNG as
fuel. While the cost of CNG vehicles is coming down, the upfront cost can still be a
barrier for some drivers.
•Safety Concerns
CNG is a flammable gas, and there are some safety concerns associated with its use as
a vehicle fuel. CNG vehicles must be designed and built to strict safety standards, and
there are regulations in place to ensure that CNG fueling stations are safe for use.
Solar-powered vehicles
With the fuel options getting limited, there will be time when the world will have to
look for other fuel options. That is the reason why we are seeing different automakers
working on alternative fuel. Among several technologies that different automakers are
working on, solar is one of them. Several innovators are working on solar-powered
vehicles. The sun is an eternal and the most sustainable source of energy that can be
used to produce electricity to run vehicles. The solar powered cars are not a common
sight in India, as these are still under the experimental phase, but these could become a
potential alternative for eco-conscious buyers.
These green vehicles use photovoltaic cells or solar panel, usually have Nickel-metal
hydride/ Nickel-Cadmium/ Lithium ion/ Lithium polymer batteries, mounted on top of
the car for generating energy from the sun. The sunlight’s energy frees electrons in the
semi-conductor photovoltaic panels and creates an electrons flow that produces
electricity and powers the battery. The solar battery can store the excessive electricity,
produced all through a sunny day, and use it during night or a cloudy day.
There are several disadvantages and advantages of solar cars.
Pros
Eco-friendly and Quiet: Solar-powered vehicles have zero emission level, as they
don’t utilize non-renewable resources and burn fuel. The electric motors generate
electricity that doesn't emit any greenhouse gases or any other pollutants. These cars
are quieter than the vehicles powered by conventional fuels, which don't cause noise
pollution as well.
Energy Availability: Solar cars derive their power from the sun, indirectly, that always
shines and provides endless energy. The efficient solar panels can produce and store
more horsepower for the vehicle.
No Fuel Costs: Unlike the conventionally fueled vehicles, solar vehicles have no fuel
costs and a low cost of maintenance.
Driving Comfort: Having aluminum and lightweight components, the solar-powered
cars run faster and more smoothly than petrol and diesel engine vehicles.
Cons
Design Challenge: The solar vehicles require large surface area on roof for mounted
solar panels, have low wind resistance and space only for two passengers.
Poor Practicality: These green cars don’t have any driver safety features and other
equipment such as wiper blades, headlights and rear-view mirrors. Aspects like
suspension, chassis strength, steering, brakes, secured solar panels and batteries
arrangement also need to be taken seriously.
Expensive Batteries: The efficient solar panels and batteries and their replacement are
way too expensive that need to be changed so often. This is what makes the solar
vehicles a costly affair.
Energy Storage Capacity: The photovoltaic cells or solar panels can convert 15-30% of
sunlight into electricity, depends on the material used, which is quite limited.
Wind energy
Wind energy and the electric vehicle, Wind Energy is the most mature and developed
renewable energy. It generates electricity through wind, by using the kinetic energy
produced by the effect of air currents. It is a source of clean and renewable energy,
which reduces the emission of greenhouse effect gases and preserves the environment.
Wind power has been used to move boats powered by sails or to operate the machinery
of mills to move their blades. Since the early twentieth century, it produces energy
through wind turbines.
The wind drives a propeller and through a mechanical system, it rotates the rotor of a
generator that produces electricity. Electrification of transportation can be the leap that
renewable energies need for the generation of electricity to consolidate and overcome
the disadvantages of not being manageable and not being able to guarantee supply.
Electrification of transportation in the next two decades may have the driving force for
wind power and other renewable energies similar to the one internal combustion
engines had in the early twentieth century for the oil industry. The batteries that
operate the vehicles can be recharged when there is surplus of electricity from wind
power.
In the not-too-distant future, stored electricity may be discharged into the grid at peak
times, acting as a distributed storage system similar to reversible pumping stations, but
on a much larger scale and involving thousands or millions of vehicles that, in addition,
spend most of the time parked. Bi-directional integration between the grid and electric
vehicles creates the conditions to integrate electricity generation and transport, opening
a new horizon for wind power and other renewable energies, which can overcome
Fuel cells : The energy of oxidation of conventional fuels, which is usually manifested
as heat, can be converted directly into electricity in a fuel cell. All oxidations involve a
transfer of electrons between the fuel and oxidant, and this is employed in a fuel cell to
convert the energy directly into electricity. All battery cells involve an oxide reduction
at the positive pole and an oxidation at the negative during some part of their chemical
process. To achieve the separation of these reactions in a fuel cell, an anode, a cathode
and electrolyte are required. The electrolyte is fed directly with the fuel.
It has been found that a fuel of hydrogen when combined with oxygen proves to be a
most efficient design. Fuel cells are very reliable and silent in operation, but are quite
expensive to construct. Operation of a fuel cell is such that as hydrogen is passed over
an electrode (the anode), which is coated with a catalyst, the hydrogen diffuses into the
electrolyte. This causes electrons to be stripped off the hydrogen atoms. These electrons
then pass through the external circuit. Negatively charged hydrogen anions (OH) are
formed at the electrode over which oxygen is passed such that it also diffuses into the
solution. These anions move through the electrolyte to the anode. Water is formed as
the by-product of a reaction involving the hydrogen ions, electrons and oxygen atoms.
If the heat generated by the fuel cell is used, an efficiency of over 80% is possible,
together with a very good energy density figure. A unit consisting of many individual
fuel cells is often referred to as a stack. The working temperature of these cells varies
but about 200°C is typical. High pressure is also used and this can be of the order of30
bar. It is the pressures and storage of hydrogen that are the main problems to be
overcome before the fuel cell will be a realistic alternative to other forms of storage for
Many combinations of fuel and oxidant are possible for fuel cells. Though hydrogen– oxygen
is conceptually simple, hydrogen has some practical difficulties, including that it is a gas at
standard temperature and pressure and that there does not currently exist an infrastructure for
distributing hydrogen to domestic users. More readily usable, at least in the short term, would
be a fuel cell powered by a more easily handled fuel. To this end, fuel cells have been
developed that run on methanol. There are two types of fuel cell that use methanol:
•reformed methanol fuel cell (RMFC) •direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC).
In the RMFC, a reaction is used to release hydrogen from the methanol, and then the fuel cell
runs on hydrogen. The methanol is used as a carrier for hydrogen. The DMFC uses methanol
directly.
RMFCs can be made more efficient in the use of fuel than DMFCs, but are more complex.
DMFCs are a type of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). The membrane in a
PEMFC fulfils the role of the electrolyte, and the protons (positively charged hydrogen ions)
carry electrical charge between the electrodes.
Because the fuel in a DMFC is methanol, not hydrogen, other reactions take place at the
anode. Methanol is a hydrocarbon (HC) fuel, which means that its molecules contain
hydrogen and carbon (as well as oxygen in the case of methanol). When HCs burn, the
hydrogen reacts with oxygen to create water and the carbon reacts with oxygen to create
carbon dioxide. The same general process takes place in a DMFC, but in the process the
hydrogen crosses the membrane as an ion, in just the same way as it does in a hydrogen-
fueled PEMFC.
The real benefit of methanol is that it can easily fit into the existing fuel infrastructure of
filling stations and does not need highly specialized equipment or handling. It is easy to store
on-board the vehicle, unlike hydrogen, which needs heavy and costly tanks.
The Advantages of Hydrogen Fuel Cells
Hydrogen fuel cell technology presents several advantages over other power
sources, including:
1. Renewable and Readily Available
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe and despite the challenges
associated with its extraction from water, is a uniquely abundant and renewable
source of energy, perfect for our future zero-carbon needs for combined heat and
power supplies.
2. Hydrogen is a Clean and Flexible Energy Source to support Zero-Carbon
Energy Strategies
Hydrogen fuel cells provide an inherently clean source of energy, with no adverse
environmental impact during operation as the byproducts are simply heat and water.
Unlike biofuel or hydropower, hydrogen doesn’t require large areas of land to
produce. In fact, NASA have even been working on using hydrogen as a resource
with the water produced as a byproduct being used as drinking water for astronauts.
This shows that hydrogen fuel cells are a non-toxic fuel source and therefore
superior in this way to coal, natural gas and nuclear power which are all either
potentially dangerous or hard to obtain. Production, storage and use of hydrogen
will play an important role in driving further development of renewable energy, by
balancing their intermittent supply modalities with the challenging end-user
demands, avoiding the need for significant early investment to upgrade grid
infrastructure.
3. More Powerful and Energy Efficient than Fossil Fuels
Hydrogen fuel cell technology provides a high-density source of energy with good
energy efficiency. Hydrogen has the highest energy content of any common fuel by
weight. High pressure gaseous and liquid hydrogen have around three times the
gravimetric energy density (around 120MJ/kg) of diesel and LNG and a similar
volumetric energy density to natural gas
[Link] Efficient when Compared to Other Energy Sources
Hydrogen fuel cells are more efficient than many other energy sources, including many
green energy solutions. This fuel efficiency allows for the production of more energy
per pound of fuel. For example, a conventional combustion-based power plant
generates electricity at 33-35% efficiency compared to up to 65% for hydrogen fuel
cells. The same goes for vehicles, where
hydrogen fuel cells use 40-60% of the fuel’s energy while also offering a 50%
reduction in fuel consumption.
5. Almost Zero Emissions
Hydrogen fuel cells do not generate greenhouse gas emissions as for fossil fuel sources,
thus reducing pollution and improving air quality as a result.
6. Reduces Carbon Footprints
With almost no emissions, hydrogen fuel cells do not release greenhouse gases, which
means they do not have a carbon footprint while in use.
7. Fast Charging Times: The charge time for hydrogen fuel cell power units is
extremely rapid, similar to that for conventional internal combustion engine (ICE)
vehicles and markedly quicker in comparison to battery-powered electric vehicles.
Where electric vehicles require between 30 minutes and several hours to charge,
hydrogen fuel cells can be recharged in under five minutes. This fast-charging time
means that hydrogen powered vehicles provide the same flexibility as conventional
cars.
8. No Noise Pollution: Hydrogen fuel cells do not produce noise pollution like other
sources of renewable energy, such as wind power. This also means that, much like
electric cars, hydrogen powered vehicles are much quieter than those that use
conventional internal combustion engines.
9. No Visual Pollution: Some low-carbon energy sources, including wind energy and
biofuel power plants can be an eyesore, however, hydrogen fuel cells do not have the
same space requirements, meaning that there is less visual pollution too.
10. Long Usage Times: Hydrogen fuel cells offer greater efficiencies with regard to
usage times. A hydrogen vehicle has the same range as those that use fossil fuels
(around 300 miles). This is superior to that currently offered by electric vehicles (EVs),
which are increasingly being developed with fuel cell power units as ‘range-extenders’.
Hydrogen fuel cells are also not significantly impacted by the outside temperature and
do not deteriorate in cold weather, unlike EVs. This advantage is increased further
when coupled with the short charging times.
11. Ideal for Use in Remote Areas
Where local conditions allow, the availability of hydrogen through local
generation and storage could prove to be an alternative to diesel-based power and
heating in remote areas. Not only will this reduce the need to transport fuels but
will also improve the lives of those living in distant regions by offering a non-
polluting fuel obtain from a readily-available natural resource.
12. Versatility of Use
As the technology advances, hydrogen fuel cells will be able to provide energy for
a range stationary and mobile applications. Hydrogen powered vehicles are just
one example, but it could also be used in smaller applications such as domestic
products as well as larger scale heating systems. Similar to ICE powerplants, the
functions of energy storage capacity (ie. the fuel tank) and engine size are
decoupled, in contrast to battery-based power (ie. for which power scales linearly
with mass), thus providing great flexibility in design.
13. Democratization of Power Supply
Hydrogen fuel cells have the potential to reduce the dependency of a nation on
fossil fuels, which will help democratize energy and power supplies around the
world. This increased independence will prove a benefit for many countries who
are currently reliant on fossil fuel supply. Of course, this will also avoid the
problem of rising fossil fuel prices as stocks reduce.
Disadvantages of Hydrogen Fuel Cells
For all the many advantages of hydrogen fuel cells, there are still a few disadvantages
and challenges to address:
1. Hydrogen Extraction: Despite being the most abundant element in the Universe,
hydrogen does not exist on its own so needs to be extracted from water via electrolysis
or separated from carbon fossil fuels. Both of these processes require a significant
amount of energy to achieve. This energy can be more than that gained from the
hydrogen itself as well as being expensive. In addition, this extraction typically requires
the use of fossil fuels, which in the absence of CCS undermines the green credentials of
hydrogen.
2. Investment is Required: Hydrogen fuel cells need investment to be developed to
the point where they become a genuinely viable energy source. This will also require
the political will to invest the time and money into development in order to improve
and mature the technology. Put simply, the global challenge for development of
widespread and sustainable hydrogen energy is how best to incrementally build the
‘supply and demand’ chain in the most cost-effective manner.
3. Cost of Raw Materials: Precious metals such as platinum and iridium are typically
required as catalysts in fuel cells and some types of water electrolyzes, which means
that the initial cost of fuel cells (and electrolyzes) can be high. This high cost has
deterred some from investing in hydrogen fuel cell technology. Such costs need to be
reduced in order to make hydrogen fuel cells a feasible fuel source for all.
4. Regulatory Issues: There are also barriers around regulatory issues concerning the
framework that defines commercial deployment models. Without clear regulatory
frameworks to allow commercial projects to understand their cost and revenue basis,
commercial projects can struggle to reach a financial investment decision (FID).
5. Overall Cost: The cost for a unit of power from hydrogen fuel cells is currently
greater than other energy sources, including solar panels. This may change as
technology advances, but currently this cost is a barrier to widespread use of hydrogen
even though it is more efficient once produced. This expense also impacts costs further
down the line, such as with the price of hydrogen operated vehicles, making
widespread adoption unlikely at the moment.
6. Hydrogen Storage: Storage and transportation of hydrogen is more complex than
that required for fossil fuels. This implies additional costs to consider for hydrogen
fuel cells as a source of energy.
7. Infrastructure: Because fossil fuels have been used for decades, the infrastructure for
this power supply already exists. Large scale adoption of hydrogen fuel cell
technology for automotive applications will require new refueling infrastructure to
support it, although for long-range applications such as those for HGVs and delivery
truck is it likely the start-to-end refuelling will be used.
8. Highly Flammable
Hydrogen is a highly flammable fuel source, which brings understandable safety
concerns. Hydrogen gas burns in air at concentrations ranging from 4 to 75%.
Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV):
The hybrid electric vehicle combines a gasoline engine with an electric motor. An
alternate is a diesel engine and an electric motor.

Figure 1: Components of a hybrid Vehicle that combines a pure gasoline with a pure
EV.
As shown in Figure 1, a HEV is formed by merging components from a pure
electrical vehicle and a pure gasoline vehicle. The Electric Vehicle (EV) has an
M/G which allows regenerative braking for an EV; the M/G installed in the HEV
enables regenerative braking. For the HEV, the M/G is tucked directly behind the
engine. In Honda hybrids, the M/G is connected directly to the engine.
The transmission appears next in line. This arrangement has two torque producers;
the M/G in motor mode, M-mode, and the gasoline engine. The battery and M/G
are connected electrically.
HEVs are a combination of electrical and mechanical components. Three main
sources of electricity for hybrids are batteries, FCs, and capacitors. Each device has
a low cell voltage, and, hence, requires many cells in series to obtain the voltage
demanded by an HEV. Difference in the source of Energy can be explained as:
•The FC provides high energy but low power.
•The battery supplies both modest power and energy.
•The capacitor supplies very large power but low energy.
The components of an electrochemical cell include anode, cathode, and electrolyte
(shown in fig2). The current flow both internal and external to the cell is used to
describe the current loop.
 Figure 2: An electrode, a circuit for a
cell which is converting chemical energy
to electrical energy. The motion of
negative charges is clockwise and forms
a closed loop through external wires and
load and the electrolyte in the cell.

A critical issue for both battery life and safety is the precision control of the
Charge/Discharge cycle. Overcharging can be traced as a cause of fire and failure.
Applications impose two boundaries or limitations on batteries. The first limit, which is
dictated by battery life, is the minimum allowed State of Charge. As a result, not all the
installed battery energy can be used. The battery feeds energy to other electrical
equipment, which is usually the inverter. This equipment can use a broad range of input
voltage, but cannot accept a low voltage. The second limit is the minimum voltage
allowed from the battery.