MECHATRONICS

MODULE I- MECHATRONICS FUNDAMENTALS AND TRANSDUCERS

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 Course Objectives and Course Outcomes

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 POs and PSOs

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Module I :-Contents

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 Text Books

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Introduction to Mechatronics

❑ Mecha + troniocs = Mechatronics

❑ Mechanical Systems Controlled using Intelligent
Controllers Supported with Accurate Measuring
Instruments and Highly Efficient Data Acquisition
Systems.
❑ Mechanical+ Electronics + Instrumentation and
Control + Computer

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 Mechatronic System

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 Mechatronic System
► Sensory Unit:- Consists of Sensors or Transducers (Usually as an array of
sensors).
► Signal Conditioning Unit (Input and Output side):- Amplifiers and Filters
mainly.
Additional components, if required:- Differentiator, Integrator, Adder or
Subtractor, Current to Voltage or Voltage to Current Converters.
► Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) and Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)
► Computer-based control unit (Hardware Unit of a PC or Laptop + Software
used to implement control mechanism)
► Actuators:- A device that generates a physical action (Also known as final
control elements ). Example:- Motors, Valves, etc.

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Evolution of Mechatronics
► Throughout the history, we can see Mechatronics grew along with the
revolution
► First Industrial Revolution (1760):-Mechanization
► Second Industrial Revolution (1960) :- Electrification and Nuclear Energy
► Third Industrial Revolution (2000):- Digitization and Renewable Energy
► Fourth Industrial Revolution (2020) :- Everything Gets Smarter
► Fifth Industrial Revolution:- The future (Expected to be dominated by much
more intelligent versions of AI with wired connections being a part of a
fairytale)

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Evolution of Mechatronics

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 Evolution of Mechatronics

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Applications of Mechatronics

► Robotics
► Manufacturing Sector
► Defense
► Automotive
► Home Appliances
► Security Systems
► UAV and AGV

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Manufacturing Design (Design For
Manufacturing)

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 Manufacturing Design
► An engineering methodology that focuses on simplifying the design of a product to
improve ease of manufacture and efficiency of assembly.
► Focuses on reducing time-to-market and total production costs
► Prioritize both the ease of manufacture (product’s parts) and the simplified assembly
of those parts (into the final product).
► All done during the early design phases of the product lifecycle.
► Several Stages in A product development cycle: ideation, design,
prototyping, and manufacturing
► As the process moves forward, making changes becomes more expensive
and complicated. If you wait until later stages—like after tooling is in place
or production has started—any design changes can be costly and time-
consuming.
► DFM helps identify potential manufacturing issues early on so the changes
in design adjustments can be done before production begins.
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Things to Consider in Design for Manufacturing

► Manufacturing Capabilities
► Part Simplicity
► Material Selection
► Tolerances
► Ease of Assembly
► Tooling and Setup Costs
► Ease of Machining
► Prototyping and Testing
► Product Lifecycle and Maintenance
► Environment

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Benefits of Design for Manufacturing

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechatronic Systems

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Transducer or Sensor?
► The main difference between a transducer and a sensor is that a
transducer converts energy from one form to another, while a sensor
detects and responds to a specific input.*
► A transducer converts energy from one form, like mechanical or
magnetic, into a measurable electrical signal. (Bicycle Dynamo)
► A sensor detects and responds to a specific input, like light,
temperature, pressure, or motion, and converts it into a measurable
output. (Rain Sensor, Proximity Sensor)

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Classification of Transducers

Transducers can be classified into different types as

► Active and Passive Transducers
► Primary and Secondary Transducers (Based on Output Conversion)
► Based on the Principle of Transduction
► Based on the Principle of Operation

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Active and Passive Transducers
► Active transducers do not require an external power source, while passive
transducers do.
► An active transducer does not utilize any external power to produce output
or take input in a system. (Ex:-Thermocouple )
► These transducers produce electricity directly from physical quantities like
heat, light, pressure, etc.
► Hence, they are known as conversion transducers.
► Passive transducers are electrical devices that receive a signal and then
donate an equivalent level of signal in response to the stimulus
received. (Ex:-Strain Gauge )

► In contrast to an active transducer, a passive one has no power source of its

own and needs to take power from some other source
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Active Transducers
► Piezoelectric
► Thermocouple
► Photovoltaic cell
► Tachogenerator
► Microphones

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Passive Transducers
► LVDT
► Strain gauge
► RVDT
► Thermistor
► Differential transformer
► Photomultiplier tube
► Potentiometer
► Resistive transducer
► Inductive transducer
► Capacitive transducer

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Primary and Secondary Transducers
► A primary transducer senses a physical input and converts it into a
mechanical signal, while a secondary transducer converts that
mechanical signal into an electrical output.
► Primary transducers , also known as primary sensing elements, are the
first to come into contact with the process variable.
► They sense physical changes or changes in their surroundings and
produce an equivalent functional output.
► Some examples of primary transducers include bourdon tubes,
diaphragms, and bellows.
► Secondary transducers convert the output of the primary transducer
into an electrical signal.
► For example, if you're measuring force with a spring element, the
displacement of the spring is measured with an electrical transducer.

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Primary and Secondary Transducers

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Based on the Principle of Transduction

► Based on the Principle of Varying Resistance

► Based on the Principle of Varying Capacitance
► Based on the Principle of Varying Inductance

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Based on the Principle of Operation

► Photovoltaic Transducer
► Photoconductive Transducer
► Piezoelectric Transducer
► Electromagnetic Transducer
► Electrostatic Transducer
► Hall Effect Transducer
► Thermoelectric Transducer
► Electromechanical Transducer

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Photoelectric Transducers
► The Photoelectric Transducer that changes light into electrical energy.
► The working principle of the Photoelectric Transducer can be classified
as Photoemissive, Photovoltaic and Photoconductive.
► The device has a photosensitive element, which ejects electrons when
a beam of light is absorbed by it.
► The photoelectric transducer absorbs the radiation of light,
which falls on the semiconductor material.
► The absorption of light energizes the electrons of the material,
and hence, the electrons start moving.
► The mobility of electrons produces one of the three effects
1. The resistance of the material changes.
2. The output current of the semiconductor changes.
3. The output voltage of the semiconductor changes.
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Photoelectric Transducers

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Photoelectric Transducers:-Photoemissive Cell

► The Photoemissive cell converts the photons into electric energy.

► It consists of an anode road and a cathode plate and coated with a Photoemissive
material

► Photoemissive material -cesium antimony.

► Anode is made of Nickel or Platinum.

► The cathode begins to emit electrons when it is hit with a light

beam of a frequency above a threshold value.

⮚ This initiates a current flow to the Anode.

⮚ The chamber is filled with inert gases like argon.

⮚ The ionized gas enhances the collision of electrons .

⮚ The maximum current is proportional to the intensity of light. 23-01-2025

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Photoelectric Transducers:-Photoconductive Cell
⮚ They are also known as Light Dependent Resistors.

⮚ Semi Conductor Material

⮚ Resistance decreases with an increase in light intensity.

⮚ Light striking the surface of a material can provide sufficient energy to

cause electrons within the material to break away from their atoms. Free
electrons and holes (charge carriers) are created within the material, and
consequently, its resistance is reduced.

⮚ This is known as the Photoconductive Effect.

⮚ Cadmium sulfide (CdS) and cadmium selenide (CdSe) are the two
materials normally used in photoconductive cell manufacture. Both respond
rather slowly to changes in light intensity

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Photoelectric Transducers:-Photoconductive Cell

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Photoelectric Transducers:-Photovoltaic Cell
⮚ Photovoltaic cells are made of semiconductor materials, such as silicon,
cadmium telluride, and perovskites.

⮚ The semiconductor material is separated into two oppositely charged

layers, a negative layer (N-semiconductor) and a positive layer (P-
semiconductor).

⮚ A photovoltaic (PV) cell, commonly called a solar cell, is a nonmechanical

device that converts sunlight directly into electricity.

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Photoelectric Transducers:-Photovoltaic Cell
⮚ The cell consists of a P-type and an N-type material and a PN junction diode
sandwiched in between.

⮚ This layer is responsible for trapping solar energy, which converts it into electricity.

⮚ The N-type layer is also known as the first layer or the emitter layer.

⮚ The P-type layer is the base layer, and the intermediate layer between the two is
the PN junction diode.

⮚ The surface of the cell is covered by an anti-reflective material, which traps the
light energy and avoids any loss of energy.

⮚ The bottom layer, the last one, may be completely covered by the material from
which the conductor is made.

⮚ The Solar energy breaks the electron-hole pair and thereby makes more holes.

⮚ A current path, if provided can result in a flow of current.

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Bourdon Tube
https://
[Link]/
bourdon-tube/2011/09/
[Link]
watch?v=XdXWUaZoREY

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Bourdon Tube

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Thermal Transducers
► The temperature transducer converts thermal energy into a physical
quantity, such as displacement, pressure, or an electrical signal.
► Most thermal transducers are electrical devices used for automatic
measuring of temperature.
► The main principle of the temperature transducer is to measure the
heat and transfer the information after converting it into readable form.
► The sensing element used in the temperature transducer must be
capable of changing its characteristics with temperature variation.
► Temperature Transducers can be classified as
► Contact Type:- Comes in direct contact with heat.
► Non-Contact Type:- No direct contact with temperature.

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Contact Type Temperature Transducers
► Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
► Thermocouple
► Thermistor
► Thermometer
► Thermostat

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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
► RTDs are precision temperature sensors.
► They are made from high-purity conducting metals such as platinum,
copper, or nickel wound into a coil.
► The electrical resistance of the metal changes with respect to the change in
temperature.
► The resistance increases along with the rise in temperature.

► The resistance changes with

the following relation ,

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Thermocouple
► Thermocouples are temperature transducers made of two different metals, like
copper and constantan, joined together.
► One junction is at a constant reference temperature, while the other is the measuring
junction.
► When the junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage develops between them,
which is used to measure the temperature.
► Seebeck Effect: When two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends, and
one of the ends is heated, a current flow is developed in the thermoelectric circuit.
► If this circuit is broken at the center, the net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck
voltage) is a function of the junction temperature and the composition of the two
metals.
► Thermocouples are available in different combinations of metals or calibrations. The
most common are the “Base Metal” thermocouples, known as Types J, K, T, E, and
N.
► There are also high-temperature calibrations, also known as Noble Metal
thermocouples, Types R, S, C, and GB.
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Thermocouple

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Thermistor
► The word thermistor is derived from Thermal Resistor.
► Thermistors are usually ceramic semiconductors.
► Due to their high sensitivity, they are widely used for temperature measurements.
► They are usually called the ideal temperature transducer.
► Thermistors are generally composed of a mixture of metallic oxides.
► The types of oxides determine the characteristic behavior of a thermistor.
► The resistance is measured by passing the small measured direct current, and this current
causes the voltage drop across the resistance.
► The resistance thermometer is categorized into two types.
• Negative Temperature Coefficient – Used for sensing the temperature (cobalt, nickel,
iron, copper, and manganese ).
• Positive Temperature Coefficient – Used for controlling the current (barium, strontium,
and lead titanates ).

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Thermistor

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Other Contact Type Temp. Measuring Instruments

► Thermostat
► A thermostat works by comparing the current temperature to the desired temperature.
► Thermostats use the principle of thermal expansion, which is when matter expands
when heated and contracts when cooled.
► Bimetallic Strip Type Thermostat and Bimetallic Disc Type Thermostat.
► Used in Iron Boxes, Electric Heaters, and Air Conditioners.
►

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Other Contact Type Temp. Measuring Instruments

► Thermometer
► A thermometer measures temperature by detecting the expansion of liquids, solids, or
gases when they are heated.
► A thermometer contains a liquid, such as mercury or alcohol, inside a glass tube.
► When the thermometer is placed in a hot substance, the liquid expands and moves up the
tube.
► A thermometer works on the principle that solids and liquids tend to expand with
temperature.
► When a thermometer lamp is immersed in a given solution or substance, mercury begins to
rise. This increase in mercury is studied on a temperature scale.
► Types
► Mercury thermometer: Uses mercury as the working liquid
► Bimetal thermometer: Uses a bimetallic element to detect temperature changes
► Resistance thermometer: Uses RTD to detect temperature changes.
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► ..
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Non-contact Type Temperature Transducers

► Infrared Thermometers
► Pyrometers
► Thermographic Cameras

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 Infrared Thermometers

⮚ An infrared thermometer is a thermometer that infers temperature

from a portion of the thermal radiation.
⮚ Sometimes called black-body radiation, it is emitted by the object
being measured.
⮚ They are sometimes called laser thermometers as a laser is used to
help aim the thermometer, or non-contact
thermometers or temperature guns, to describe the device's ability to
measure temperature from a distance.
⮚ Infrared thermometers employ a lens to focus the infrared light
emitting from the object onto a detector known as a thermopile.
⮚ The thermopile is nothing but thermocouples connected in series or
parallel.
⮚ When the infrared radiation falls on the thermopile surface, it gets
absorbed and converts into heat.

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Infrared Thermometers

According to Stefan Boltzmann’s law,

total thermal radiation emitted by a
body can be calculated by, Q = σ · T^4
(in W/m2)
Where, σ = Stefan Boltzmann’s .

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 Infrared Thermometers

⮚ Infrared thermometers work based on black body radiation.

⮚ According to which any material with a temperature above

absolute zero has molecules moving within it.

⮚ The higher the temperature, the faster the molecules move.

⮚ The molecules emit infrared radiation as they move and emit

more radiation, including visible light, as they get hotter.

⮚ This is why a heated metal emits a red or white glow.

⮚ Infrared thermometers detect and measure this radiation.

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Pyrometers

► A pyrometer is an optical instrument used to measure the temperature

of a surface by means of the thermal radiation it emits.
► It works on the principle of thermal radiation, where all objects emit
electromagnetic radiation depending on their temperature.
► A pyrometer detects this emitted radiation and correlates it to
temperature without coming in direct contact with the target surface.
► Different types of pyrometers are available depending on the
technology used, such as
► Optical pyrometers
► Radiation pyrometers ( IR Pyrometer )

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Optical Pyrometers
Include eyepiece, power source, absorption
screen, filament, and red filter.
The brightness of the filament of a bulb is
adjusted.
This is done by controlling the current through
the filament.

The heated object ( Temperature Source ) emits

energy, which is focused on the filament by an
objective lens.

The magnitude of the current flow can be

changed until the filament’s intensity is similar
to that of the object.
The absorption screen increases
As the intensity of both the filament and object
the temperature range.
are the same, then the filament outline can
The red filter helps in narrowing
vanish completely.
the wavelength band.

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 Optical Pyrometers

Applications:-

Used to measure the temperature of highly heated materials.

Useful in measuring furnace temperatures.

Used in critical process measurements of semiconductors, medical,

induction heat treating, crystal growth, furnace control, glass manufacture,
medical, etc.
Advantages Used for high temperatures and temperature of distant objects as well
as moving the object’s temperature. Accurate, lighter in weight, portable

Disadvantages:-Smoke and dust affect accuracy, not suitable for burning gases
and expensive

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Radiation Pyrometers (IR Pyrometers )

Write the same content as in Radiation Thermometer

Page 46,47,48

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Piezoelectric Transducer
❏ The piezoelectric effect is a peculiarity wherein certain materials
produce an electric charge in light of mechanical pressure or twisting.
❏ On the other hand, these materials can likewise go through a
mechanical deformity when exposed to an electric field.
❏ This bidirectional connection between mechanical pressure and
electric charge is normal for piezoelectric materials.
❏ Examples:-Quartz ,lead zirconate titanate (PZT) and polyvinylidene
fluoride (PVDF).
❏ A piezoelectric transducer (also known as a piezoelectric sensor) is a
device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure changes in
acceleration, pressure, strain, temperature or force by converting this
energy into an electrical charge. 53
Piezoelectric Transducer

The piezoelectric crystal is sandwiched between the two electrodes.

Due to the mechanical deformation , it generates charge .
The crystal acts as a capacitor.
A voltage is developed across the electrodes of the transducer
The voltage can be measured and calibrated with the deforming force
This helps in directly measuring the mechanical deforming force
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Piezoelectric Transducer
❏
The magnitude and polarity of the induced charge Q ∝ F, the applied force.
❏ Q= kF where k is a proportionality constant.
❏ In a capacitor , the charge generated Q = CV, where C is the Capacitance and
V is the voltage across the capacitor .
❏ We can write C= ƐA / d , where Ɛ is dielectric constant and A is the area of
the plate and d is the distance between the plates.
❏ Combining all these equations we get, Q= kF= ƐA V/ d.
❏ F = ƐA V/ dk
❏ Carefully observe the above expression; Ɛ, A, d and k are constant for a given
piezoelectric transducer.
❏ This essentially means that, magnitude of applied force is directly proportional
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to the output voltage across the electrodes.
Piezoelectric crystal can be used in many
modes

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Equivalent Circuit of Piezoelectric Transducer

❏ Source is a charge generator whose value is equal to kF.

❏ The charge generated is across the capacitance Cp of the
crystal and leakage resistance Rp.
❏ The charge generator can be replaced by an equivalent
voltage source having a voltage of V= Q/Cp = kF/Cp

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Pyroelectric Transducer
❏ A pyroelectric transducer converts changes in temperature into electrical
signals, utilizing the "pyroelectric effect(Thermoelectric Effect)."
❏ Pyroelectric sensor is a thermoelectric infrared sensor based on the
principle of thermoelectric effect.
❏ It can detect infrared signals from the human body and convert them into
electrical signal output.
❏ A pyroelectric detector contains a piece of ferroelectric crystal material with
electrodes on two sides – essentially a capacitor.
❏ One of those electrodes has a black coating (or a processed absorbing
metal surface), which is exposed to the incident radiation.
❏ The incident light is absorbed on the coating and thus also causes some
heating of the crystal because the heat is conducted through the electrode
into the crystal.
❏ As a result, the crystal produces some pyroelectric voltage.
❏ gallium nitride (GaN), cesium nitrate (CsNO3), polyvinyl fluorides
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Pyroelectric Transducer

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Strain Gauge
❏ A Strain gauge (sometimes referred to as a Strain gage) is a
transducer whose resistance varies with applied force,
❏ It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in
electrical resistance which can then be measured.
❏ When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and
strain are the result.
❏ Stress is defined as the object's internal resisting forces, and strain is
defined as the displacement and deformation that occur .

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 Strain Gauge
❏ The strain gauge consists of a fine wire or foil, typically made of a highly
conductive material like copper or constantan.
❏ This is attached to a flexible backing material.
❏ When a mechanical strain is applied to the strain gauge, the wire or foil
undergoes deformation, resulting in a change in its length and cross-
sectional area.
❏ This alteration in dimensions causes a corresponding change in the
electrical resistance of the wire or foil.
❏ The change in resistance can be measured using a Wheatstone bridge
circuit, which is commonly employed in strain gauge applications.
❏ The Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistive arms, with the strain gauge
forming one of the arms.
❏ The other three arms typically consist of fixed resistors.

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 Strain Gauge
❏ The strain gauge consists of a fine wire or foil, typically
made of a highly conductive material like copper or
constantan.
❏ This is attached to a flexible backing material.
❏ When a mechanical strain is applied to the strain gauge,
the wire or foil undergoes deformation, resulting in a
change in its length and cross-sectional area.
❏ This alteration in dimensions causes a corresponding
change in the electrical resistance of the wire or foil.

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 Strain Gauge
❏ The change in resistance can be measured using a Wheatstone
bridge circuit, which is commonly employed in strain gauge
applications.
❏ The Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistive arms, with the
strain gauge forming one of the arms.
❏ The other three arms typically consist of fixed resistors.

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 Strain Gauge Load Cell

Structurally, a load cell sensor is made of a metal body

(also called flexure).

Foil type strain gauges are bonded to the flexure.

When stress is applied to a stationary object, the

resulting deformation or displacement of its material
causes strain that is captured by the strain gauge.

Load cells and force sensors are designed to focus the

stress (tension, compression, pressure, load) through
elements where the strain gauges are located.

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Types of
Strain
Gauges

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Hydraulic Load Cell

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Pneumatic Load Cell

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Hall Effect Transducer
► The Hall effect transducer works on the principle of the Hall effect.
► Hall effect refers to the deflection of moving electrons (or other charge
carriers) in a conductor by a magnetic field.
► When a current-carrying conductor is placed perpendicular to a magnetic field,
the moving charges experience a force perpendicular to both their velocity and
the applied magnetic field.
► This force causes the charges to accumulate on one side of the conductor,
creating an electric potential known as the hall voltage.

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Hall Effect Transducer:- Working
Principle
► A Hall effect transducer consists of a strip or rectangular wafer
of semiconductor material like silicon with four terminals .
► Two each along the two opposite edges.
► A known DC current is passed through the two opposite edge
terminals (1 and 2 ) along the width of the semiconductor strip.
► Now if the strip is placed perpendicular to an external
magnetic field, the electrons flowing through it will experience
a deflecting Lorentz force.
► This causes the free electrons to accumulate on the two
edges on opposite faces of the strip (3 and 4), creating a
potential difference or Hall voltage between those edges.
► This Hall voltage is directly proportional to the strength of the
magnetic field.
► In the above figure, a conducting strip is kept in a transverse
magnetic field. Note that the current through the strip and the
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magnetic field are perpendicular to each other.
Hall Effect Transducer:- Working
Principle
► The magnetic field will exert a force on the moving positive charges as per F = q(v x
B).
► Since v and B are perpendicular to each other, the magnitude of the force on the
moving positive charges will be F = qvB

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Hall Effect Transducer:- Applications
► Measurement of Displacement – The Hall effect element measures the
displacement of the structural element. For example – Consider the
ferromagnetic structure which has a permanent magnet.

► Measurement of Current – The hall effect transducer is also used for

measuring the current without any physical connection between the
conductor circuit and meter.
► Magnetic to Electric Transducer – The Hall effect element is used for
converting the magnetic flux into an electric transducer.
► Measurement of Power -The hall effect transducer is used for measuring
the power of the conductor.
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Optical Encoder
► Rotary Optical Encoder
► Incremental Optical Encoder
► Absolute Optical Encoder
► Linear Optical Encoder

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Rotary Optical Encoder
► An Optical Encoder is a transducer used as a motion sensing device.
► It uses light shone through a coded disk to track the movement of a shaft.
► The encoder provides feedback based on the interruption of light.
► The light beam is picked up by a Photodetector Assembly, also called a
photodiode array or a photosensor.
► The Photodetector Assembly responds to the light beam, producing a
sinusoidal wave form, which is transformed into a square wave or pulse
train.

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Optical Encoder

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Optical Encoder
► The Optical Encoders typically consist of a rotating and a stationary electronic
circuit.
► The rotor is usually a metal, glass, or a plastic disc mounted on the encoder
shaft.
► The disc has some kind of optical pattern, which is electronically decoded to
generate position information.
► The rotor disc in absolute optical encoder uses opaque and transparent
segments arranged in a gray-code pattern.
► The stator has corresponding pairs of LEDs and photo-transistors arranged so
that the LED light shines through the transparent sections of the rotor disc and
received by photo-transistors on the other side.
► After the electronic signals are amplified and converted, they are then
available for the evaluation of the position

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Incremental Optical Encoder
Incremental encoders generate a fixed number of pulses during
one rotation.

The number of pulses per revolution (PPR) defines an incremental

encoder’s resolution, or how precise its measurements are.

The pulses are emitted as digital output signals using two

incremental channels (A and B).

If you only need to know speed (RPM) but not direction, only the A
channel is used.

When you need to know both speed and direction, channels A and
B are used together.

The A and B channels have a phasing offset of 90 electrical

degrees.

Channel Z is used as the Reference Position

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Absolute Optical Encoder
► Absolute encoders are feedback devices that provide information about
the absolute position or true angular position of the encoder.
► Unlike incremental encoders that output a continuous stream of ubiquitous
pulses, absolute encoders output unique words or bits for each position.
► Unlike incremental encoders that output a continuous stream of ubiquitous
pulses, absolute encoders output unique words or bits for eac.h position

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Linear Optical Encoders
► This type of encoder irradiates light onto a slit pattern that moves along a
linear axis, detects the light that passes through (or is reflected by) the pattern
with a sensor, and outputs it as position information.

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