COTM 3192:

HIGHWAY
ENGINEERING I
Department of Infrastructure and Technology
Management, School of Built Environment
CHAPTER-3
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
OF HIGHWAYS
3.1 CONCEPTS

 Alignment is a 3D problem broken

down into two 2D problems
 Horizontal Alignment (plan view)
 Vertical Alignment (profile view)

 Stationing
 Measured along horizontal alignment
 12+100 = 12 km & 100 m=
12,100m
 12+10 =1km & 210m= 1210m
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

 Vertical alignment
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
ADDIS ADAMA EXPRESS WAY(HORIZONTAL
ALIGNMENT
ESCARPMENT TERRAIN SWITCH BACK
CURVE
STATIONING
Horizontal Alignment

Vertical Alignment
 Examples of Drawings of Highway Projects
Plan & Profile Drawing 1

Plan & Profile Drawing 2

Typical Cross-section
HORIZONTAL
ALIGNMENT
3.2 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
 Objective:
 Geometry of directional transition to ensure:
 Safety
 Comfort

 Primary challenge
 Transitionbetween two directions
 Horizontal curves Δ
 Consists of
1. Straight sections/ Tangents
2. Circular curves
3. Transition Curves
 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
1. Tangents
 Usually longer in flat terrain but shorter
in other terrain types
 Longer Tangents provide:
Positive  A better visibility
Impact  More passing opportunity


 Increased danger of headlight glare

Negative  Excessive speeding & the resulting accident
Impact
 Driver fatigue & dizziness which cause
accident
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
2. Horizontal Circular Curves
2.1 Types
 Broken-back (also referred to as "flat
back") curves are a combination of two curves
in the same direction with an intervening short
tangent.
 Where the intervening tangent is longer than

500 metres, the appellation "broken-back" is

no longer appropriate.
 Reverse curves are also a combination of two

curves but in opposite directions with an

intervening short tangent.
 Compound curves: curves in the same

direction but of different radii, and without any

intervening section
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
GUIDELINES FOR MINIMUM LENGTH OF
THE CURVE
 on minor roads, curves should have:-
 a minimum length of 150 metres for a
deflection angle of 5 degree
 this length should be increased by 30 metres

for every 1 degree decrease in deflection

angle.
 On major roads and freeways,
 the minimum curve length in metres should

be three times the design speed in km/h.

 The increase in length for decreasing

deflection angle also applies to these roads.

 ELEMENTS OF SIMPLE HORIZONTAL CURVE
FUNDAMENTALS

• Where: PI
T Δ
PC= point of curvature E
(beginning of curve) M Δ/2

PI= Point of Intersection L

PC PT
PT= Point of tangency
L=Length of Curve
C= Chord length
R R
M= Middle Ordinate
E= External distance Δ/2 Δ/2

R= Radius of circular curve

T= Tangent length
O
HORIZONTAL CURVE FUNDAMENTALS

L R
180 PI
T Δ
 E
T R tan
2 M
L
 1  PC Δ/2 PT
E R  1
 cos  2 
 
M R 1  cos  R R
 2
 Δ/2 Δ/2
C 2 R sin
2
PROPERTIES OF COMPOUND CURVE
 1   2

 1 
t 1
 R1  tan
 2 


 2 
t 2
 R 2  tan


2 

T 1
t 1 Vv1

T 2
t 2 Vv 2

Vv 2

t1  t 2
 Vv1
Sin1 sin(180   ) sin  2
It is preferable that the ratio
of flatter radius to sharper
radius not exceed 1.5:1.
EXAMPLE 1
Two tangents intersect at a deflection angle of
23o18’02’’ and a simple horizontal curve of Radius
1400m long inserted to join the two tangents. If the
point of intersection PI is at station 2+200, determine
•The Tangent distance
•External Distance
•Curve Length
•The Length of the Chord & Middle ordinate
•The Stations of PC & PT

Given
Δ=23.3006
R=1400
PI station=2+200
 Station of PC=station of PI-T=2200-259
SOLUTION =1+940
Station of PT=Station of
 PC+L=1940+570=2+511
L R =570m
180 PI
T Δ
 E
T R tan =259m
2 M
L
 1  PC Δ/2 PT
E R  1 =23.8m
 cos  2 
 
M R 1  cos  =23.4m R R
 2
 =510m Δ/2 Δ/2
C 2 R sin
2
EXAMPLE 2
A simple horizontal Curve of radius 600m were used to
join two tangents of a highway. The curve has a length
of 250m and the station of PI was 6+250. Determine the
station of PT and the distance of PI from the curve.

Given
R=600m
L=250m
PI station=6+250
Required
Station of PT
External ordinate(E)
 SOLUTION

Δ=(180*250)/(600*3.14) =23.9 PI
T Δ
 E
T R tan =114m
2 M
L
 1  PC Δ/2 PT
E R  1 =10.7m
 cos  2 
Station of PC=station of PI-T=6250-114
=6+136 R R
Station of PT=Station of
PC+L=6136+250=6+386 Δ/2 Δ/2
EXAMPLE-3
A Compound curve consists of two simple horizontal
curves of radius R1=600m & R2=400m was introduced
to join two tangents which meet at station 255+800. If
the central angles of the larger and the smaller circular
curves are 36o28’12’’ and 42o 36’05’’ respectively.
Determine the stations of PC, PCC and PT.
Given
Δ1=36.47 degree
Δ2=42.6 degree
R1=600m
R2=400m
PI station=255+800
Required
Station of PC
Station of PT
Station of PCC
SOLUTION
 1   =79.07
2

 1 
t 1
 R1  tan
 2 
 =177m
 2 
t 2
 R 2  tan


2 
=139m

T 1
t 1 Vv1 =177m+Vv1

T 2
t 2 Vv 2 =139m+Vv2

Vv 2

t1  t 2
 Vv1
Sin1 sin(180   ) sin  2
=316.033

Vv1=196
Vv2=172
ASS. 1
A horizontal curve is designed with a 1500 m. radius.
The tangent length is 400 m. and the PT station is
20+00. What are the PI and PC stations?

ASS. 2
A Compound curve of radius R1=1200m & R2=800m
was introduced to join two tangents which meet at
station 45+260 with a deflection angle of 68o28’12’’ . If
the central angle of the smaller circular curves is
38o36’05’’. Determine
• The stations of PC, PCC and PT.
•The radius of a simple horizontal curve, that can
substitute the compound curve
ASS. -3

A compound curve consists of two simple curves whose

radii are 300m & 700m. It is inserted between two
straights intersecting at station 5+265 and their angle of
deflection being 70o. If the curve is to be started at
station 4+955, determine the station of PCC and PT.
SETTING OUT OF HORIZONTAL
CURVES
 For simple curve, the following methods are
used
1. Offset from Tangent method
2. Offset from Long chord
3. Deflection Angle from PC and normal
chord
4. Deflection angle method from PC & PT
using two theodolite
PLEASE REFER TO YOUR SURVEYING COURSE
& ANY SURVEYING BOOKS
REFERENCES

 P.H. Wright and K.K Dixon. (2010). Highway Engineering,

Seventh Edition. Chapter 7

 American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials (AASHTO). (2001). A Policy on Geometric Design
of Highways and Streets, Fourth Edition. Washington, D.C.

 Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA). (2013). Geometric Design

Manual, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
 Addis Ababa City Roads Authority (AACRA). (2003).
Geometric Design Manual, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
3.5 VERTICAL
ALIGNMENT
3.5 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
 It consists two elements
1. Tangent Grade[ straight lines in vertical plane]
2. Vertical Curves
 Tangent Grades
 Are characterized by their slope or grade
 It is also related with the vehicles performance &
the level of service required
 The effect of steep grade is to slow down
heavier vehicles (vehicles with smaller
power/weight ratio)
 In addition to the steepness of grades ; the
length of the grade also another critical factor
 Hence we need to have maximum grade
limits
3.5 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
 Maximum Gradient
 Vehiclesoperation over gradient depends on
many factors
 The steepness & the length of grade
 Vehicle composition

 The number of overtaking opportunity

 And others

 ERA geometric design manual specify different

grades for various design standards and terrain
type
3.5 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
 Minimum Gradient
A longitudinal minimum gradient of tangent
grades are specified in design standards for
drainage purpose
 A minimum grade of 0.5% is recommended in
both AASHTO & ERA geometric design manual
for curbed highways & streets

 However, for uncurbed & paved roads in flat

terrain provision of sufficient crown slope can be
satisfactory
3.5 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
 Vertical Curves
 Between two tangents grades, in order to ensure
a smooth transition[ grade change], vertical
curves will be introduced

 In order to ensure
 a constant rate of change of grade
 Comfortable driving operation

 Pleasant appearance and

 Safety

Parabolic Vertical curves are provided

between tangent grades
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
There are two types of Vertical curves
1. Crest Vertical curve [G2-G1 is
negative]
2. Sag vertical curves [G2-G1 is
positive]
VERTICAL CURVE FUNDAMENTALS
 Parabolic function
 Constant rate of change of slope
 Implies equal curve tangents

2
y ax  bx  c
 y is the roadway elevation at x distance
from the beginning of the curve
VERTICAL CURVE FUNDAMENTALS
y
PVI
G1 δ
PVC G2
x PVT
L/2

L
x
PVC= Point of Vertical Curve
2 PVI= Point of Vertical
y ax  bx  c Intersection
PVT= Point of vertical tangent
L= Length of Vertical Curve
 NB:
• G1, G2 in decimal form,
• L in meter

RELATIONSHIPS

At the PVC : x 0 and Y c

dY
At the PVC : x 0 and b G1
dx

d 2Y G2  G1 G2  G1
Anywhere : 2
2a   a
dx L 2L
RELATIONSHIPS
PVI
G1 δ
PVC G2
PVT
L/2

L
x

2
y r / 2 x  g1x  [Link]
Where:
y= elevation of a point on the curve
N:B G& g are used r= rate of change of grade
synonymously in x=horizontal distance measured from PVC
this presentation g1= Entry grade
g2= Exit grade
 •G1, G2 in percent
•L in meter
OTHER PROPERTIES
G1 x

PVT
PVC

Y
Ym G2

PVI Yf
A  G1  G2

A 2 AL AL
Y x Ym  Yf 
200 L 800 200
 EXAMPLE -1
A 400 m equal tangent vertical curve has a PVC station of 100+000 at
256.4m. elevation. The initial grade is 2.0 percent and the final grade
is -4.5 percent. Determine the type of curve (sag or crest), the
elevation and stationing of PVI, PVT, and the high point/Lowest point
of the curve.
Given: L=400m
Sta. Pvc=100+000
Elev. PVC=256.4m
G1=+2.0%
G2=-4.5%
Required: Type of curve
Elev of PVI
Station of PVI
Elev. PVT
station of PVT
Elev. of High/low point
Sta. of High/low point
 EXERCISE (ASS-1&2)
A -2.5% grade is connected to a +1.0% grade by means of a 180m
parabolic vertical curve. The PVI station and elevation are 100+100
and 100.2m respectively. compute
a. The stations and elevations of PVC &
PVT=100+10,102.45
b. The elevation of the curve at station 100+100=100.2
c. The station and elevation of the highest/lowest point on
the curvexh=12857.1

d. The elevations on the curve at full stations of 20m interval

Two grade lines intersect at station 2+200 where the point of vertical
intersection (PVI) elevation is 239.5m. The starting grade is -6% and
the ending grade is +2%. If the length of the curve is 500m, compute
a. The stations and elevations of PVC & PVT
b. The elevation of the curve at station 2+200
c. The station and elevation of the highest/lowest point on
the curve
d. The elevations at full stations at 20m interval
 LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVE
 What is Length of Vertical Curve?
 What elements of the vertical curve are

governed by the length of vertical curve?

 How does it affect the vehicle operation?

 How should we determine its length?

LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVE

 Minimum length of vertical curve set based on

 Sight distance requirement
 Comfort standards involving rate of vertical
acceleration
 Appearance criteria
 Vertical clearance
 The equations for determining the length of
vertical curve for sight distance requirements
are shown below
FOR CREST VERTICAL CURVES
SSD

PVI
Line of Sight

PVC PVT G2
G1

h2
h1

L
For SSD < L For SSD > L

L
ASSD 
2

L 2SSD 

200 h1  h2 
2


100 2h1  2h2 
2
A
CREST VERTICAL CURVES
 According to AASHTO for Stopping sight
distance
 h1 = driver’s eye height = 1.08m.
 h2 = tail light height = 0.6m.

 Simplified Equations

For SSD < L For SSD > L

ASSD 
2
658
L L 2SSD 
658 A
FOR SAG VERTICAL CURVES
Light Beam Distance (SSD)

G1
headlight beam (diverging from LOS by β degrees) G2

PVC PVT

h1 PVI
h2=0

L
For SSD < L For SSD > L

A SSD 2
200h1  SSD tan  
L L 2SSD 
200h1  SSD tan   A
SAG VERTICAL CURVES

 Assumptions for design

 h1 = headlight height = 0.6m
β = 1 degree

 Simplified Equations

For SSD < L For SSD > L

ASSD   120  3.5SSD 

2
L L 2SSD   
120  3.5SSD   A 
N.B: Minimum lengths of vertical curves are expressed as about 0.6 times
the design speed in Km/hr( L =0.6V).
EXAMPLE- 3
Determine the minimum length of vertical curve between an entry
grade of +2.5% and an exit grade of -1.5% for a road with a 100Km/h
design speed. Assume the vertical curve must provide 190m long
stopping sight distance. Solution: Type of Curve=Crest curve
Given: SSD=190m  Case 1 SSD>L
G1=+2.5% L1=219.4m
G2=-1.5% Case 2 SSD<L
Required: Length of Vertical L2=215.5m
Curve Take the higher value

ASSD 
2
L
658
658
L 2SSD 
A
EXERCISE(ASS-3)
Compute the minimum length of vertical curve that will provide a 220m
stopping sight distance for a design speed of 110Km/h at the
intersection of a +2.6% grade and a -2.4% grade. .

EXERCISE (ASS-4)
Compute the minimum length of vertical curve that will provide a 220m
stopping sight distance for a design speed of 110Km/h at the
intersection of a -3.5% grade and a +2.7% grade. .
MINIMUM VERTICAL CURVE LENGTH FOR
COMFORT AND APPEARANCE CRITERIA
Comfort criteria

Appearance criteria
A minimum vertical curve length of 60 m where grade
breaks are less than 2 percent or design speeds are less
than 60 km/h.
 Where the grade break is greater than 2 percent and
the design speed is greater than 60 km/h, the minimum
vertical curve is given by L 2V, where L in the vertical
curve length in meters and V is the design speed in
km/h.
LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVE
 K-Value (defines vertical curvature)
 The number of horizontal distance needed for a 1%
change in slope
L
K
A
 Design standards set the value of K for different
design speeds to ensure sufficient sight
distances, riding comfort, aesthetics and
safety.

 According to ERA design manual the value of K for

different design speeds for both stopping & passing
sight distances is shown below
LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVE
LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVE
EXAMPLE -4
A car is traveling at 50 km/h in the country at night on a wet road
through a 50 m long sag vertical curve. The entering grade is -2.4
percent and the exiting grade is 4.0 percent. A tree has fallen across
the road at approximately the PVT. Assuming the driver cannot see
the tree until it is lit by her headlights, is it reasonable to expect the
driver to be able to stop before hitting the tree?
EXERCISE(ASS 5)
Along a road with a design speed of 70Km/h, a -5.5% grade intersect
with a +2.5% grade at station 75+20 and elevation 56.08m.

a. Determine the minimum length of the vertical curve to the

nearest 20m according to ERA Geometric design manual for
both Stopping sight distance & passing sight distance
requirement.
b. Determine the station & elevations of PVC, PVT and the
highest/lowest point
c. Prepare the setting out data at 20m full stations.
 MINIMUM CURVE LENGTH FOR
VERTICAL CLEARANCE
 In some cases the length of vertical curve
may be limited by the need to provide
clearances over or under objects such as:
 Overpasses
 Drainage structures
 MINIMUM CURVE LENGTH FOR VERTICAL
CLEARANCE

PVC PVT

C
y’
PVI
C represents the critical clearance,
Z horizontal distance from PI to the Object
critical point z
Y’=the offset between the critical
point and the tangent passing L=4*w-2*z+4√(w*w-w*z)
through the BVC Where, w=y’/A
EXAMPLE-6
A vertical curve joins a -1.2% grade to a +0.8% grade. The PVI of the
vertical curve is at station 75+00 and elevation of 50.90m. The
centerline of the roadway must clear a pipe located at station 75+40 by
0.80m. If the elevation of the pipe is 51.10m,
[Link] the minimum length of the vertical curve that can be used
[Link] the length of the vertical curve determined above if sufficient
for SSD of 180m
c. Determine the station & elevations of PVC, PVT and the
highest/lowest point
[Link] the setting out data at 20m full stations.
SOLUTION

Z=40m
Elevation of tangent=50.42m
Elevation of roadway=51.10m +0.8m=51.90m
Y’=51.90-50.42=1.48m
A=0.8-(-1.2)=2%
W=Y’/A=1.48/0.02=74
L=4*w-2*z+4√(w*w-w*z)=417m
EXERCISE(ASS-6)
 Given the profile below, determine;
a) The length of vertical curve needed to make
the highest point on an overpass vertical curve
come out exactly over the centerline of the
cross road at station 150+70.
b) The vertical clearance between the profile
grade on the vertical curve and the centerline
of the cross road.
Station of PVI: 150+00
PVI Elevation of PVI: 48.00

+6%
-3%
Cross Road CL
Elevation of cross road
center line:37.50
REFERENCES

 P.H. Wright and K.K Dixon. (2010). Highway Engineering,

Seventh Edition. Chapter 7

 American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials (AASHTO). (2001). A Policy on Geometric Design
of Highways and Streets, Fourth Edition. Washington, D.C.

 Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA). (2013). Geometric Design

Manual, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
 Addis Ababa City Roads Authority (AACRA). (2003).
Geometric Design Manual, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.