Module -3

BY [Link].L

Mobile communication systems: History of mobile

communication systems G to 5G. Global System for Mobile
Communication (GSM)- features and services, Architectural
review, IS-95 and CDMA 2000, Historical Overview, System
Overview.
 Industrial and technological
revolution: from steam engines to
the Internet
• The massive and wide spread adoption of mobile connected devices is
further driving deep societal changes with tremendous economic, cultural
and technological impact to a society that is becoming more networked and
connected.
• Humanity is going through a phase of a technological revolution that
originated with the development of semiconductors and the integrated
circuit and continued with the maturing of Information Technology (IT)
sector and the development of modern electronic communication in the
1970s and 1980s, respectively.
Four stages of industrial evolution
• First 1760–1840- introduction of the power loom and the steam engine.
• Second-1840–1914-introduction of the Bessemer steel process and
culminated in early factory electrification, mass production and the
production line.
• Third-1950–2010s-introduction of Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLCs). This allowed further automation of the production process and
an increase in productivity.
• Fourth-current-a new generation of wireless communications enables
pervasive connectivity between machines and objects, which itself
enables another leap in industrial automation.
• 5G will enable the fourth stage of the Industrial Revolution by
extending wireless communications from humans to a fully connected
world of humans and objects. It will have:

• connectivity as a standard for people and things,

• critical and massive machine connectivity,
• new spectrum bands and regulatory regimes,
• mobility and security as network functions,
• integration of content distribution via the Internet,
• processing and storage at the network edge and
• software defined networking and network function virtualization.
 Mobile communications
generations: from 1G to 4G
1G - First Generation (Analog)
• Title: 1G - The First Generation Mobile
Communication
• Content:
• Deployment: 1950s-1960s (early commercial use).
• Key 1G Standards:
• NMT (Nordic countries)
• C-Netz (Germany, Portugal, South Africa)
• TACS (UK)
• AMPS (Americas)
• Technology: Analog, frequency-modulated radio signals,
digital signaling channel.
Characteristics of 1G (Analog)
Technology

• Analog technology for voice communication.

• Limited coverage and low penetration.
• Focus on voice services with no data capabilities.
The Birth of 2G – The Move to Digital
2G: The Shift to Digital Communication

•1982: CEPT decided to develop a pan-European 2G system.

•GSM became the dominant 2G standard.
•Deployment: 1991 onwards.
•Introduction of digital transmission and switching technology.
• Key Features of GSM:
• Digital transmission and switching.
• Improved voice quality and network capacity.
• International roaming across Europe.
• Introduction of supplementary services like SMS (Short Message Service).

• Technology: Hybrid TDMA/FDMA (in contrast to 1G’s FDMA).

Other 2G Digital Systems Worldwide

•TIA/EIA-136 (NA-TDMA) - North American TDMA standard.

•TIA/EIA IS-95A (CDMA One) - CDMA-based standard.
•PDC (Personal Digital Cellular) - Exclusively in Japan.
2.5G - The Evolution of 2G

2.5G - General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)

• Introduction of packet-switched data services alongside voice and circuit-

switched data.
• Key Feature: Enabled basic mobile internet services.

2.5G - GPRS and EDGE Evolution

• Key Standards: GPRS (extension of GSM) and TIA/EIA-951 (extension of IS-95A).
• Technology: Introduction of packet data services, GPRS as a stepping stone for
EDGE.
• EDGE: Enhanced data rates using higher order modulation and coding schemes.
 Evolution of GSM/EDGE to Enhanced Data Rates

•GSM/EDGE evolves with enhancements in data rates and carrier aggregation.

•EDGE: Further developed into Enhanced General Packet Radio Service (EGPRS).

•Key Feature: Support for higher bandwidths and carrier aggregation for the air interface.
Transition to 3G
The Path to 3G - Development of
UMTS

• 1998: CDMA adopted as UMTS (Universal Mobile

Telecommunications System).
• Technologies: WCDMA and TD-CDMA.
• IMT-2000: International Mobile Telecommunications 2000
classification.
3G Evolution: 3.5G (HSPA)

3.5G - High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA)

• HSPA combines HSDPA (High-Speed Downlink Packet Access) and HSUPA

(High-Speed Uplink Packet Access).
• Key Feature: Enhanced packet data rates, up to 14.6 Mbps downlink and 5.76
Mbps uplink.
• MIMO: Introduction of Multiple Input, Multiple Output technology for higher
data rates.
4G - Long Term Evolution (LTE)
4G - LTE and the Shift to OFDMA

• LTE: New air interface based on Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple

Access (OFDMA).
• Architecture: System Architecture Evolution/Evolved Packet Core (SAE/EPC).
• Key Feature: Higher spectrum blocks and flexible component frequency
carriers.
•LTE Release 8 and IMT-Advanced
• Release 8: Peak data rates up to 326 Mbps, lower latency (20 ms), and increased
spectral efficiency.
• Transition to 4G: LTE initially considered a precursor to 4G, later accepted as 4G.
• IMT-Advanced: Specifications for future 4G, supporting carrier aggregation and
higher order MIMO.

• LTE Evolution: Release 10 and Release 11

• Release 10: Improved capacity through higher order MIMO and carrier
aggregation up to 100 MHz bandwidth.
• Release 11: Further improvements with advanced features like interference
cancellation and coordinated multipoint (CoMP).
• LTE Release 12 & 13: Supporting MTC and IoT

• LTE-M and NB-IoT: Designed for Machine Type Communication (MTC) devices,
offering extended coverage and low power consumption.
• Release 13: Carrier aggregation up to 32 carriers, targeting extreme broadband
data rates.

Global Mobile Market Growth and Trends :

 GSM/EDGE: Dominates with 57% market share (4.26 billion subscribers).

 3G (HSPA): 26% market share (1.94 billion subscribers) since 2010.
 Global Subscribers: 7.49 billion subscribers worldwide by 2015.
 HSPA Subscription Peak: Expected to peak by 2020 and decline afterward.
 LTE Growth: LTE reached 910 million subscribers by the end of 2015 and is
expected to hit 4.1 billion by 2021, becoming the largest mobile technology.
The Trend of 3GPP Standards

3GPP Standards: Spectrum, Bandwidth, and

Efficiency

Trend: Widespread use of spectrum, higher

bandwidths, higher spectral efficiency, and
lower latency.
Figure 1.3 (illustrate the trend in the graph
showing 3GPP standard features).
GSM–GlobalSystemforMobileCommunications

• 1 HistoricalOverview
2 SystemOverview
BaseStationSubsystem NetworkandSwitchingSubsystem OperatingSupportSystem
3 TheAirInterface
4 LogicalandPhysicalChannels
LogicalChannels MappingBetweenLogicalandPhysicalChannels
5 Synchronization FrequencySynchronization TimeSynchronization TimingAdvance
SummaryofBurstStructures
6 Coding
VoiceEncoding ChannelEncoding Cryptography FrequencyHopping
7 Equalizer
[Link]-SwitchedDataTransmission
9 EstablishingaConnectionandHandover
IdentityNumbers IdentificationofaMobileSubscriber
ExamplesforEstablishmentofaConnection ExamplesofDifferentKindsofHandovers
10 ServicesandBilling AvailableServices Billing
GSM– Global System for Mobile
Communications
1. Historical Overview of GSM
 1. Historical Overview of GSM

• Introduction:
• GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is the most successful
mobile communication system worldwide.
• Developed in 1982 by CEPT (later ETSI), the aim was to create a pan-European
digital mobile communication system.
• Objectives:
• Technical Goal: A better and more efficient wireless communication system,
superior to analog systems.
• Political Goal: A single standard for all of Europe, enabling cross-border
roaming.
GSM Development and Evolution

• Early Development:
• Proposals included multiple access methods: TDMA, FDMA, CDMA.
• After testing and political decisions, TDMA was selected as the basis.
• The final system was a compromise between multiple companies to avoid
competitive advantage.
• Evolution of GSM:
• Phase-2 Specifications (1995): Added functionalities to GSM.
• GPRS and EDGE: Introduced as enhancements, leading to GSM 2.5th
Generation.
Global Expansion and Technical
Details
• Global Success:
• Originally designed for Europe, GSM expanded worldwide.
• Australia was the first non-European country to adopt GSM.
• By 2009, GSM had almost 3.5 billion subscribers.
• Frequency Bands(versions)
• GSM900 (original), GSM1800 (DCS1800), GSM1900 (PCS1900 in the USA).
• Open Standard:
• GSM is an open standard, ensuring compatibility across different
manufacturers.
• Providers can choose equipment from different suppliers for network
expansion.
[Link] System Overview
[Link] System Overview

• Key Components of GSM:

• Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
• Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
• Operation Support System (OSS)
Block diagram
Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
Overview

• Components of BSS:
• Base Transceiver Stations (BTS): Establish and maintain connections with
Mobile Stations (MSs).
• Base Station Controllers (BSC): Control and manage multiple BTSs.
• Interfaces:
• Um Interface: Between MS and BTS (air interface).
• Abis Interface: Between BTS and BSC (not fully standardized).
BSS Functionality and
Operations
• Functions of BSS:
• Channel Assignment: Allocating communication channels to MSs.
• Link Quality Maintenance: Ensuring consistent communication quality.
• Handover (HO): Switching between BTSs within the same BSC.
• Power Control, Coding, and Encryption: Ensuring signal strength, secure
communication, and error management.
• Efficiency Considerations:
• BSC may control several BTSs, shifting functionality to improve efficiency but
increasing signaling traffic on the BTS-BSC link.
Network and Switching
Subsystem (NSS)
• The NSS is a key component of the GSM network.
• Main function: Controls traffic between different BSCs.
• Key element: Mobile-services Switching Center (MSC).

Functions of the MSC

• Mobility Management: Ensures seamless movement of subscribers.
• Handover Management: Transfers MS between BSCs.
• Paging & Location Update: Keeps track of subscriber locations.
• Network Interaction: Connects to PSTN and other networks.
Databases in NSS
• Home Location Register (HLR): Stores subscriber details and location.
• Visitor Location Register (VLR): Tracks roaming subscribers.
• Authentication Center (AUC): Verifies user identity.
• Equipment Identity Register (EIR): Stores info on stolen/misused
devices.
Operating Support System
(OSS)
• OSS manages network operations and maintenance.
• Supports administrative and technical tasks.
Key Functions of OSS
• Accounting: Tracks call costs and subscriber plans.
• Maintenance: Ensures hardware & software reliability.
• MS Management: Detects and blocks faulty devices.
• Data Collection: Monitors traffic and link quality.
Accounting in OSS
• Determines call costs for subscribers.
• Manages different service plans.
• Handles administrative complexity.

Maintenance in OSS
•Hardware failures require technician MS Management & Data Collection
visits.
•Software issues can be managed • Identifies devices causing interference.
remotely. • Blocks unauthorized MS activities.
•Centralized updates for switching • Monitors network performance and
software.
traffic.
[Link] Air Interface
[Link] Air Interface
GSM employs a combined FDMA/TDMA approach which further combines with Frequency
Domain Duplexing (FDD)
FDD
• First GSM version used:
• 890–915MHz (Uplink)
• 935–960MHz (Downlink)
• GSM1800:
• 1,710–1,785MHz (Uplink)
• 1,805–1,880MHz (Downlink)
• North America:
• 1,850–1,910MHz (Uplink)
• 1,930–1,990MHz (Downlink)
• 45MHz spacing ensures separation between uplink and downlink.
Frequency Division Multiple
Access (FDMA)
• Uplink and downlink bands are divided into a 200-kHz grid.
• Outer 100 kHz of each 25 MHz band is reserved as a guard band.
• 124 subbands available, identified by Absolute Radio Frequency
Channel Numbers (ARFCNs).
Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA)
• Uses Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) modulation.
• Each 200-kHz subband supports 271 kbit/s.
• Each subband is shared by eight users.
TDMA Frame Structure
• Each timeslot: 576.92μs long, carrying 156.25 bits.
• Frame: Set of 8 timeslots, 4.615 ms duration.
• Timeslots are numbered 0 to 7 in each frame.
• Each subscriber accesses one specific timeslot in every frame.
Physical and Logical Channels

• Physical Channel: Defined by a combination of frequency and

timeslot.
• Logical Channel: Determines the type of data transmitted over a
physical channel.
• Logical channels are classified into traffic channels (TCH) and control
channels (CCH).
The Assignment of Timeslots in
the Uplink and Downlink
Modulation Technique – GMSK
• Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) is used for GSM downlink.
• Variant of Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) with Gaussian filtering.
• Time-bandwidth product BGT = 0.3.
• Advantages:
• Narrow spectrum efficiency.
• Disadvantages:
• Causes Inter Symbol Interference (ISI).
• Equalization is required to combat delay dispersion.
• Detection methods:
• Differential detection
• Coherent detection
• Limiter–discriminator detection
Power Ramping in GSM

• Why Power Ramping?

• Prevents abrupt signal transitions that cause spectral broadening.
• Ensures smooth transmission start and stop.
• How it Works?
• Signals are gradually turned on and off.
• Defined ramp-up time: 28μs.
• Power increases from 2 × 10⁻⁷ W to 2W.
• During Transmission:
• Power deviation limited to ±1dB (25%) from nominal value.
• Ensures stable signal transmission.
Signal Power and Power Control
in GSM
• Purpose of Power Control:
• Battery Efficiency: Reduces MS power consumption and extends battery life.
• Interference Reduction: Prevents unnecessary interference in adjacent cells.
• GSM vs. CDMA:
• Power control is essential in CDMA.
• In GSM, it optimizes performance but is not mandatory.
Power Control Mechanism in
GSM
• Mobile Station (MS) Power Control:
• Maximum transmission power: 2W (common for MSs).
• Can be reduced by 30dB, in 2dB steps.
• Adaptive control: BS informs MS about received signal level.
• Base Station (BS) Power Control:
• Max power varies: 2W to 300W+.
• Power can also be reduced by 30dB.
• Adjustments help optimize network efficiency.
Out-of-Band Emission and Intermodulation
Products

• Out-of-Band Emission Limits:

• Less strict than analog systems.
• Max permitted out-of-band power: ~−30dBm (BS & MS).
• High value for wireless communication.
• Uplink Band Restrictions (890–915MHz):
• BS emissions must not exceed −93dBm.
• Needed to prevent interference with MS signals (~−102dBm).
• BS transmit and receive antennas are close, making interference critical.
• Intermodulation Products:
• Similar strict limits apply.
• Ensures minimal disruption to signal reception and network performance.
Structure of a GSM Timeslot
• Timeslot Length: 148 bits Types of GSM Bursts
• Data Structure: 1. Normal Burst: Used for regular data
• Payload Data: Two blocks of 57 bits each.
transmission.
• Midamble (26 bits):
2. Access Burst:
• Used for training equalization.
• Serves as BS identifier. Transmitted by MSs to establish initial
• Control Bits: contact with BS.
• Located between the midamble and data 3. Frequency Correction Burst:
blocks. Helps MSs adjust to the correct
• Purpose explained in Section 24.4.
frequency.
• Tail Bits (3 bits at start & end):
4. Synchronization Burst:
• Helps with Maximum Likelihood Sequence
Estimation (MLSE). Enables MSs to synchronize with BS
• Guard Period (8.25 bits): Prevents frame timing.
interference between timeslots.
[Link] and Physical Channels
Overview
[Link] and Physical Channels
Overview
• Definition: Logical channels manage different types of data
transmission, mapped onto physical channels (specific timeslots on a
frequency band).
• Two Main Channel Types:
• Traffic Channels (TCHs): Transmit payload data (voice or pure data).
• Control Channels (CCHs): Transmit signaling information required for network
operation.
• Logical Channel Mapping: Logical channels are mapped onto physical
channels based on timeslot allocation.
Traffic Channels (TCHs)

• Full-Rate Traffic Channels (TCH/F):

• Full-rate voice: 13 kbit/s (channel-coded to 22.8 kbit/s).
• Full-rate data: Supports 9.6, 4.8, or 2.4 kbit/s (coded to 22.8 kbit/s).
• Half-Rate Traffic Channels (TCH/H):
• Half-rate voice: 6.5 kbit/s (channel-coded to 11.4 kbit/s).
• Half-rate data: 4.8 or 2.4 kbit/s (coded to 11.4 kbit/s).
• Efficiency: Two half-rate channels can share the same timeslot in
alternating frames.
Control Channels (CCHs)

• Broadcast Channels (BCHs) (Downlink Only):

• FCCH (Frequency Correction Channel): Provides MS with frequency
reference.
• SCH (Synchronization Channel): Helps MS synchronize to BS timing.
• BCCH (Broadcast Control Channel): Transmits cell-specific information.
• Common Control Channels (CCCHs):
• PCH (Paging Channel): Alerts MS for incoming calls.
• RACH (Random Access Channel): MS requests connection.
• AGCH (Access Grant Channel): Assigns a dedicated channel for
communication.
Dedicated Control Channels
(DCCHs)
• SDCCH (Standalone Dedicated Control Channel): Manages
authentication and call setup.
• SACCH (Slow Associated Control Channel): Transmits link-quality
information.
• FACCH (Fast Associated Control Channel): Used for quick handovers
(HOs).
• Association:
• SACCH is linked to either a TCH or an SDCCH.
• FACCH is linked only to a TCH.
Mapping Between Logical and
Physical Channels
• Understanding the Frame Structure
• GSM time grid is divided into periodically
repeated frames and timeslots.
• Frames are the smallest unit of time, with
8 timeslots per frame.
• Frame Hierarchy:
• 1 Frame = 8 timeslots (4.61ms)
• 26 Frames = 1 Multiframe (120ms)
• 51 Multifames = 1 Superframe (6.12s)
• 2,048 Superframes = 1 Hyperframe (3h 28min)
• Purpose of Hyperframe: Mainly for
encryption and privacy over the air
interface.
 Logical Channels in a Multiframe
Traffic Channel (TCH) and SACCH

•TCH: 24 out of 26 frames used for TCH data transmission.

•SACCH:
•Uses the 13th frame (and sometimes the 26th) of the multiframe.
•Transmission rate: 950 bit/s.
•Data processing:
•Four SACCH bursts are grouped into a 480ms frame.
•Uses convolutional encoding to ensure error correction.

FACCH
•Only used in special situations (e.g., handover).
•No dedicated timeslot; instead, it “steals” bits from the TCH bursts.
•Uses the same encoding method as SACCH.
Common Logical Channels
[Link] Carrier
• Some logical channels are not associated with a TCH and require separate
transmission.
• These channels are mapped to timeslot 0 of the BCCH carrier.
• If the cell is full, this timeslot can be used for a TCH connection.
• Frames are combined differently:
• 51 frames = 1 Multiframe (235ms)
[Link] (Random Access Channel)
• Used in uplink only.
• Access Burst Structure:
• 8 tail bits → 41 sync bits → 36 encoded data bits → 3 tail bits.
• Guard time of 100μs to avoid collision.
• Timeslot 0 can be used for random access bursts in every frame.
Common Channels in the
Downlink
• FCCH, SCH, BCCH, PCH, and AGCH
• Found in downlink only and have a fixed order in the multiframe.
• Multiframe Structure:
• 51 frames, with the last frame always idle.
• Divided into blocks of 10 frames:
• 1st frame: FCCH
• 2nd frame: SCH
• Frames 3-6: BCCH
• Frames 7-10: PCH or AGCH
• SDCCH (Standalone Dedicated Control Channel)
• May have a separate physical channel or use available BCCH slots.
• Either four or eight SDCCHs can share one physical channel.
5. Synchronization in GSM
5. Synchronization in GSM

• The MS synchronizes with the BS for both frequency and time.

• Steps for synchronization:
• Frequency Synchronization – Adjusting the MS frequency to match the BS.
• Time Synchronization – Aligning timing with the BS's signal.
• Timing Advance – Compensating for signal travel time.
Frequency Synchronization

• The BS uses high-precision clocks (Rubidium or GPS signals).

• The MS uses low-cost quartz oscillators.
• The FCCH (Frequency Correction Channel) transmits the reference
frequency.
• The FCCH burst consists of:
• 3 tail bits at start and end.
• 142 all-zero bits in the middle.
• Guard period eq. to period of 8.25 bits.
• The MS adjusts its local oscillator based on the FCCH signal.
Time Synchronization & Timing
Advance
• Time Synchronization:
• Done via the SCH (Synchronization
Channel).
• SCH transmits frame and timing
information.
• Helps MS align its internal counter with BS.
Timing Advance:
Required due to signal
delay (up to 100μs for
30km range).
The BS estimates delay
and instructs the MS to
send bursts earlier.
Prevents overlapping of
bursts from different
MSs.
Summary of Burst Structures

• GSM supports different burst structures:

• FCCH Burst – Frequency synchronization.
• SCH Burst – Time synchronization.
• RACH Burst – Access request with extended guard time.
• Normal Burst – Used for standard data transmission.
• Guard periods ensure bursts don’t overlap at the BS.
• In large cells, every second timeslot may be used to prevent
interference.
[Link] in GSM
[Link] in GSM

• Purpose: Convert speech into a digital signal while maintaining quality

and minimizing data rate.
• Key Processes:
• Voice Encoding – Compressing speech data efficiently.
• Channel Encoding – Adding redundancy for error correction.
• Cryptography – Encrypting data for security.
• Frequency Hopping – Mitigating interference and fading.
Voice Encoding in GSM

• Uses lossy compression (RPE-LTP method).

• Speech modeled as a time-varying filter bank.
• The encoder transmits:
• Filter parameters
• Excitation parameters
• Bit classification:
• Class 1a: Most important, protected by block & convolutional coding.
• Class 1b: Moderately important, protected by convolutional coding.
• Class 2: Least important, no protection.
• Voice Activity Detection (VAD) & Discontinuous Transmission (DTX)
• Reduces data rate when no speech is detected.
• Saves battery and reduces interference.
Channel Encoding in
GSM
• Block Coding:
• Class 1a bits use a (53,50)
block code for error
detection.
• If an error is detected, the
block is discarded, and a
replacement is estimated.
• Fire Code for Signalling Data:
• (224,184) Fire code corrects burst errors.
• More redundancy due to critical importance (e.g., handovers).

• Convolutional Encoding:
• Rate-1/2 convolutional coding applied to Class 1 bits & signaling data.
• Uses generator polynomials:
Interleaving in GSM
• Purpose: Spread out burst Diagonal Interleaving:
errors caused by fading. Each transmission
• Method: burst contains parts of
two different blocks.
• Data from two blocks ("a"
Reduces the impact of
and "b") is interleaved.
deep fades.
• Each block is split into 8
subblocks.
• Subblocks are transmitted in
separate bursts.
Cryptography in GSM

• Why is encryption needed?

• Analog mobile communication was easy to eavesdrop on.
• Digital systems can apply cryptographic techniques for security.
• Encryption Process:
• Uses XOR operation with a Pseudo Noise (PN) sequence.
• The PN-sequence has a 3.5-hour periodicity.
• The A5 algorithm is used for encryption.
• A3 & A8 algorithms handle authentication.
• Security Challenges:
• Reverse engineering of encryption algorithms has occurred.
• However, attacks require significant effort and resources.
Frequency Hopping in GSM

• Purpose: Reduce interference and fading effects.

• How it works:
• Carrier frequency changes for each transmission burst.
• Requires hopping pattern synchronization between BS & MS.
• Benefits:
• Reduces impact of small-scale fading.
• Mitigates co-channel interference.
• Helps spread interference more evenly.
• Limitations:
• Not applied to BCH & CCCH channels to ensure easy detection by the MS.
[Link] in GSM
[Link] in GSM

• Why is Equalization Needed?

• GSM symbols are shorter than typical channel delay spreads, leading to Inter-Symbol
Interference (ISI).
• Equalization corrects ISI and improves signal quality.
• Training Sequence for Equalization:
• 26-bit midamble used for channel estimation.
• Located in the middle of a burst (57 bits before & after).
• Eight different PN-sequences are defined to help distinguish between cells.
• Channel Estimation:
• The training sequence has an autocorrelation peak of 26 at zero offset.
• Cross-correlation with the received midamble provides a scaled version of the channel
impulse response.
• The estimated impulse response is used to correct ISI for all symbols in a burst.
Viterbi Equalization & Delay
Diversity
• Why Midamble Instead of Preamble?
• GSM supports MS speeds up to 250 km/h.
• If training was at the start of the burst, channel variations would make it inaccurate by the end.
• Midamble ensures accuracy for the entire burst.
• Viterbi Equalization:
• Most common equalizer used in GSM.
• Based on a trellis structure to track channel memory (constraint length).
• Balances performance and complexity.
• Works well with convolutional decoding.
• Delay Diversity:
• Multipath propagation leads to versions of the signal arriving at different times.
• Different paths fade independently, reducing average bit error probability.
• Multipath effects can improve reliability with a proper equalizer.
[Link]-Switched Data
Transmission in GSM
[Link]-Switched Data
Transmission in GSM
• Initial Focus on Voice Communication
• GSM was designed primarily for voice calls.
• Some data services were included:
• Short Message Service (SMS)
• Point-to-point data transmission (9.6 kbps)
• Data transmission used a circuit-switched mode, similar to voice calls.
• Disadvantages of Circuit-Switched Data (CSD)
• Low data rate (below 10 kbps).
• Slow connection setup time.
• High cost for maintaining a continuous connection.
• Poor match for Internet-based applications, which require burst transmissions.
Transition to Packet-Switched
Data
• Mismatch with Modern Web Applications
• Web browsing, email, and multimedia require higher data rates.
• CSD’s continuous connection model was inefficient for bursty traffic.
• Only SMS remained widely used.
• Introduction of Packet-Switched Transmission
• GSM later introduced packet-switched (connectionless) data transmission.
• Improved efficiency for high-volume, intermittent data needs.
• GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) and later EDGE provided better data
rates.
• Became the foundation for mobile internet evolution.
9. Establishing a Connection and
Handover in GSM
9. Establishing a Connection and Handover in GSM
GSM Identity Numbers

• 1. Mobile Station ISDN Number (MS ISDN) 3. Mobile Station Roaming Number
• The unique phone number of the subscriber. (MSRN)
Temporary number for roaming
• Structure:
subscribers.
• Country Code (CC)
Helps in call routing outside the home
• National Destination Code (NDC)
• Subscriber Number
network.
• Maximum 15 digits.
4. International Mobile Station
Equipment Identity (IMEI)
2. International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
Used for subscriber identification in the GSM network. Identifies the mobile device itself.
Structure: Structure:
Mobile Country Code (MCC) Type Approval Code (TAC)
Mobile Network Code (MNC) Final Assembly Code (FAC)
Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN)
Serial Number (SN)
Stored in the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).
IMEI is not linked to a subscriber but to
the hardware.
Mobile Subscriber Identification in
GSM
• SIM Card – Key to Subscriber Identity
Security Mechanisms
• The SIM card contains: •Personal Identification Number (PIN)
• IMSI for subscriber authentication.
• Temporary network information (e.g., TMSI,
• A 4-digit code required at phone
location area). startup (if activated).
• User profile data (e.g., phonebook).
• If entered incorrectly 3 times, the
SIM is locked.
Key Features of SIM Cards • Can be reset using the Personal
•A GSM phone requires a SIM to make/receive calls. Unblocking Key (PUK).
•Calls are billed to the subscriber whose SIM is in the
device.
•Personal Unblocking Key (PUK)
•A subscriber can use any compatible phone by • Unlocks the SIM if the PIN is
inserting their SIM. blocked.
• 10 incorrect attempts result in
permanent SIM lock.
Connection Establishment &
Handover in GSM
Handover Process
• Establishing a Connection •Handover occurs when a user moves between cells.
• The network identifies the •The mobile continuously monitors signal strength.
•Types of handovers:
mobile using: • Intra-cell: Between frequencies within the
• IMSI, MSRN, or TMSI same cell.
(Temporary Mobile Subscriber • Inter-cell (same BTS): Between sectors of the
Identity). same Base Station.
• Inter-BTS (same BSC): Between different
• A paging request is sent to
Base Stations under one BSC.
locate the MS. • Inter-BSC (same MSC): Between different
• Once found, the network BSCs in the same MSC.
• Inter-MSC: Between different MSCs (more
assigns radio resources to complex process).
establish the call.
Example of Establishment of a
Connection in GSM:
Mobile-Initiated Call Setup
• Steps for Call Establishment by a Mobile Subscriber
1. MS requests SDCCH from BTS using RACH.
2. BTS grants access via AGCH.
3. MS sends connection request to MSC via SDCCH:
a) Provides the dialed number.
b) Performs authentication.
c) MSC marks MS as busy.
4. MSC assigns a Traffic Channel (TCH) via BSC.
5. MSC establishes a connection to the external network (PSTN).
6. If the called party answers, the connection is established.
Network-Initiated Call Setup
Steps for Call Establishment to a Mobile Subscriber
1. A PSTN user dials the MS ISDN (mobile number).
2. The PSTN routes the call to the GSM provider’s Gateway MSC.
3. The Gateway MSC queries the HLR for the subscriber’s location.
4. If roaming, HLR requests the MSRN from the current MSC.
5. The Gateway MSC forw
6. ards the call to the hosting MSC.
7. The hosting MSC locates the MS in its area via the BSC.
8. BSC pages the MS via BTSs in the location area.
9. MS responds by requesting an SDCCH.
10. BSC grants access via AGCH.
11. Connection setup follows the same process as an MS-initiated call.
12. If the MS answers, the call is connected.
[Link] Services and Billing:
GSM Services Overview
• 1. Teleservices (End-to-End Communication)
• Voice Calls – Standard mobile calls.
• DTMF (Dual-Tone Multi-Frequency) – Keypad-based signaling (e.g., remote access to
voicemail).
• Emergency Calls – Priority access even without a SIM.
• FAX – Requires adapters due to GSM’s digital nature.
• SMS (Short Message Service) – Text messages (up to 160 characters).
• Cell Broadcast – Localized public messaging (e.g., traffic updates).
• Voicemail – Call forwarding to an answering service.
• Fax Mail – Faxes stored in a GSM service center.
• 2. Bearer Services (Network Access)
• PSTN Connection – Dial-up access to analog landlines.
• ISDN Connection – Digital network connectivity.
• Packet-Switched Networks – Enables mobile data transmission.
Supplementary Services &
Billing
Supplementary Services (Call Management & Security)

• Call Forwarding – Redirects calls based on conditions.

• Call Blocking – Restricts outgoing/incoming calls (e.g., international calls).
• Advice of Charges – Estimates call costs.
• Call Hold & Waiting – Manage multiple calls simultaneously.
• Conference Calls – Allows multi-user voice calls.
• Caller ID – Displays the caller’s number.
• Closed User Groups – Limits calls within predefined groups.
Billing
1. Technical & Economic Challenge – Requires an Operations Support
System (OSS) for accurate billing.
2. Flexible Payment Models – Unlike traditional landlines, GSM allows
shared costs between caller and receiver.
3. Accounting for Supplementary Services – Charges for call
forwarding, roaming, SMS, data usage, etc., are tracked separately.
OSS ensures accurate billing & service management for diverse
subscriber plans.
Assignment:
• Examples of Different Kinds of Handovers
• 3 cases are discussed in the text , prepare a report on that.
• Examples of Billing is discussed in text , go through it.
E-learning links:GSM

1. [Link]
2. [Link]
3. [Link]
4. [Link]
 IS-95 &
CDMA 2000
CONTENTS
1. Historical Overview
2. System Overview
3. Air Interface
- Frequency Bands and Duplexing
- Spreading and Modulation
- Power Control
- Pilot Signal
4. Coding
-Speech Coders
-Error Correction Coding
5. Spreading and Modulation
-Long and Short Spreading Codes and Walsh Codes
-Spreading and Modulation in the Uplink
-Databurst Randomization and Gating for the Uplink
-Spreading and Modulation in the Downlink
1. Historical Overview
Evolution of CDMA: From IS-95 to 3G
Standards
Key Milestones
• 1991: Qualcomm’s IS-95 became the first commercial
CDMA standard (adopted by TIA).
• Post-1992: U.S. operators shifted from analog (AMPS) to
digital (IS-95 gained traction).
• Late 1990s: Demand for high-data-rate applications
(streaming, web) drove 3G development.
3G CDMA Standards
1.CDMA2000 (U.S./IS-95 legacy):
1. Backward-compatible with IS-95.
2. Seamless transition for existing operators.
[Link] (GSM legacy):
1. Adopted by GSM-based operators.
2. Incompatible with CDMA2000 despite similarities.
Market Impact
• Dominant in South Korea; used by 2/4 major U.S. operators by 2005.
2. IS-95 System Overview
Frequency Allocation & Duplexing
• FDMA Component: 1.25 MHz bands per channel.
• U.S. Spectrum:
• Uplink: 1850–1910 MHz
• Downlink: 1930–1990 MHz
• Duplexing: Frequency Division Duplex (FDD).

Channel Structure & Spreading

• Channels Separated by Codes: Traffic, control, pilot use unique chip sequences.
• Speech Coding: 13.3 or 8.6 kbit/s → encoded to 28.8 kbit/s.
• Spreading Factor: 64 → Chip rate = 1.2288 Mchip/s.
• Theoretical Users/Cell: 64 (practical: 12–18 due to interference/power control).
Key Features
• Downlink: Walsh-Hadamard codes (orthogonal, max 64
channels).
• Uplink: Non-orthogonal codes + inter-cell interference.
• Power Control:
• BS: 8–50 W (adjustable coverage).
• MS: ~200 mW (tight power control for equal received power).
• Synchronization: GPS timing for BSs (eases handovers).
3. AIR INTERFACE
1. Frequency Bands and Duplexing

• Uplink and Downlink Separation: Utilizes FDD for simultaneous communication.

Frequency Bands
• Operating Band: 1850–1990 MHz (Personal Communication System - PCS band).
• Channel Width: Divided into 50 kHz units.
Channel Frequency Calculations
• Uplink Frequencies:

• Downlink Frequencies:

• where nch = 1,...,1199. An IS-95 system requires 1.25MHz– i.e., 25 of these

channels
2. Spreading and Modulation
• Source Data Rate:
• Rate-set 1: 8.6 kbit/s
• Rate-set 2: 13.3 kbit/s
• Chip Rate: 1.2288 Mchip/s
Spreading Techniques:
• M-ary Orthogonal Keying (MOK):
• Used to spread the data over multiple orthogonal channels.
• Multiplication by Spreading Sequences:
• Uses Pseudo-Noise (PN) codes to spread the signal across a wide bandwidth.
3. Power Control
• Power control is critical for maintaining the capacity and performance
of a CDMA cellular system.
• It compensates for both large-scale fading and Small-Scale Fading
(SSF).
Quality of Power Control:
• Accuracy: Measures the deviation of received power from the ideal
level in steady-state conditions.
• Speed: Determines how quickly power control adapts to changing
channel conditions.
1. Open-Loop Power Control:
• The Mobile Station (MS) observes downlink power, estimates path loss, and
adjusts transmit power.
• Compensates for shadowing and average path loss, but not SSF.
• Used at the start of a call when no closed-loop control is available
2. Closed-Loop Power Control:
• Inner Loop:
• BS adjusts MS power based on SINR (Signal-to-Interference-and-Noise Ratio) every
1.25ms.
• Command to MS: Adjust power by ±1 dB.
• Outer Loop:
• BS evaluates uplink performance via frame quality.
• If the frame error rate is high, SINR target is adjusted every 20ms.
4. Pilot Signal
• Purpose: Timing acquisition, channel estimation, and handover
process support.
Pilot Signal Characteristics:
• Pseudo Noise (PN)-Sequence with 32,768 chips (26.7ms long).
• Pilots from different Base Stations (BSs) are offset by 64 chips
(52.08μs), reducing interference from long-delayed echoes.
Usage by MS (Mobile Station):
• MS correlates received signal with pilot PN-sequence.
• Enables MS to determine signal strength from all BSs in its vicinity.
4. CODING
• Before a speech signal can be transmitted over the air interface, it first
has to be digitized and encoded.
• IS-95 foresees the use of different speech coders with different bit
rates
• It has to be designed in such a way that output from the channel
coder is always 19.2 kbit/s for the downlink and 28.8 kbit/s for the
uplink
1. Speech Coders
Initial Coder: IS-96A
•Bit Rate: 8.6 kbit/s
•Issue: Poor speech quality, degraded with increased frame error rates.

CDG-13 Vocoder (QCELP)

• Variable-rate speech coder

•Dynamic Bit Rates: 13.3, 6.2, 1, and possibly 2.7 kbit/s based on voice activity.
•Frame Duration: 20 ms
•Parameters: Formant, pitch, and codebook determined via “analysis by synthesis.”
•Complexity Factors:Intensive computational demands for parameter search.
Enhanced Variable Rate Coder (EVRC)
•Active Bit Rate: 170 bits per 20 ms
•Features: Adaptive noise suppression, improved speech quality.
•Variable Data Rate Advantage:
•Reduced to ~1 kbit/s during silence (approx. 50% of the time), increasing
overall capacity.
2. Error Correction and Coding
Error Correction Coding for 8.6 kbit/s Uplink
• Forward Error Correction Overview:
• Different for 8.6 kbit/s vs. 13.3 kbit/s.
• Identical for IS-96A and EVRC vocoders (Rate-Set-1).
• Encoding Steps:
1. Initial Bits: 172 bits from vocoder for each 20 ms frame.
2. Add Frame Quality Indicator (FQI):
12 bits added as parity check bits.
3. Encoder Tail:
8-bit tail added, totaling 192 bits.
4. Convolutional Encoding:
• Encoded with a rate-1/3 convolutional encoder (constraint length 9).
• Generator Polynomials:
• G1(D) = 1 + D² + D³ + D⁵ + D⁶ + D⁷ + D⁸
• G2(D) = 1 + D + D³ + D⁴ + D⁷ + D⁸
• G3(D) = 1 + D + D² + D³ + D⁴ + D⁵ + D⁸

Final Bit Rate:

Error Correction Coding for 13.3 kbit/s
Uplink
• Similar encoding steps to the 8.6 kbit/s vocoders but with different
values.
1. Encoding Steps:
1. Initial Bits: 267 bits (including unused bits) per 20 ms frame.
2. Add Frame Erasure Bit: Indicates frame status.
3. Add Frame Quality Indicator (FQI):
1. 12 bits to check frame integrity.
4. Add Encoder Tail:
1. 8-bit tail for Viterbi decoder assistance.
Total Bits: 288 bits per 20 ms frame.
5. Convolutional Encoding:
• Encoded with a rate-1/2 convolutional encoder (constraint length 9).
• Generator Polynomials:
G1(D) = 1 + D + D² + D³ + D⁵ + D⁷ + D⁸
Error Correction Coding in the
Downlink
Error Correction Coding for 8.6 kbit/s Downlink
• Similar FQI and tail bits as uplink.
• Uses a rate-1/2 convolutional encoder.
• Bit Rate:
• Increases to 19.2 kbit/s.
Error Correction Coding for 13.3 kbit/s Downlink
• Follows the 13.3 kbit/s uplink procedure.
• Bit Rate:
• Initial rate: 28.8 kbit/s.
• Puncturing applied to achieve 19.2 kbit/s.
• Interpretation:
• Encodes vocoder output using a rate-3/4 convolutional code.
• Puncturing eliminates the 3rd and 5th bits from 6-bit symbol blocks.
• Preserves all bits from G1(D) while selectively removing bits from G2(D).
Interleaving
• Output from the convolutional encoder is sent through a block
interleaver of length 576 for rate set 2.
5. SPREADING AND MODULATION
1. Long and Short Spreading Codes and Walsh Codes
• IS-95 uses three types of spreading codes: long spreading codes, short
spreading codes, and Walsh codes.
Walsh Codes
• Strictly orthogonal codes constructed systematically.
• Walsh–Hadamard Matrix:
Short Spreading Codes
• PN-Sequences:
• Generated using a shift register of length 15.
• Periodicity: 215−12^{15} - 1215−1.
• Adjusted Periodicity: 215=32,7682^{15} = 32,768215=32,768 chips (26.7 ms).
• Generator Polynomials:
Long Spreading Codes
• Definition: Based on PN-sequences for longer periodicity.
• Shift Register Length: 42 bits.
• Periodicity: 242−12^{42} - 1242−1 (over 40 days).
• Generator Polynomial
• Modulation: Output from the shift register is modulo-2 added with a
long-code mask.
• Channel Variations:
• Access Channels: Derived from paging and access channel numbers and BS
identification.
• Traffic Channels: Derived from Electronic Serial Number (ESN) or encryption
algorithm.
2. Spreading and Modulation in
the Uplink
• Modulation and coding in the uplink are achieved through a
combination of steps. The starting point is a bitstream with 28.8
kbit/s, which is obtained by providing error correction coding to the
vocoder signal
Step 1: Mapping Data to Walsh Code

• Achieves spreading by a factor of 64/6

• Chip Rate: Output from Walsh encoder at 307.2 kchip/s
• This can also be seen as M-ary orthogonal modulation; in other words, each
group of 6 bits is represented by one modulation symbol that is orthogonal
Step 2: Spreading with Long Code
• Long Spreading Code: Multiplies Walsh code output.
• Uplink Functionality: Provides channelization, distinguishing different
traffic and access channels.
• Chip Rate: Increases to 1.2288 Mchip/s.
Step 3: Separation and Modulation
• Data stream separated into In-phase (I) and Quadrature-phase (Q)
components.
• Each component multiplied by short spreading sequences (no change in
chip rate).
• Uses Offset Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (OQAM).
• 1. Source Data Preparation
• Bitstream Rate: Starts with a 28.8 kbps bitstream, which is the
vocoder output with error correction coding applied.
• This stream carries voice or data that will be transmitted over the air.
3. Databurst Randomization and
Gating for the Uplink
• Standard Data Rate: 28.8 kbit/s output from the channel coder.
• Source Rates:
• 14.4 kbit/s or 9.6 kbit/s
• Lower rates: 14.4 kbit/s, 7.2 kbit/s, 3.6 kbit/s possible through convolutional encoding.
• Repeating Symbols: Encoded symbols repeated to achieve desired data rate.
Gating Mechanism
• Purpose: Optimize power usage by transmitting repeated data only part of the
time.
• Transmitter Operation:
• Example: For 14.4 kbit/s (source 7.2 kbit/s), transmitter active only 1/2 the time.
• Result: Average transmit power reduced by half, lowering interference for other users.
Gating Coordination with Interleaver
• Timing: Gating must align with interleaver output.
• For 7.2 kbit/s source rate, each 1.25 ms symbol group is repeated.
• Gating removes one of the two symbol groups.
Gating Decision Algorithm
A decision about which of two symbol groups actually gets transmitted is
determined by the long spreading sequence, according to the following algorithm
1. Analyze the second-to-last 1.25 ms symbol group.
2. Use the last 14 bits of the sequence, labeled as [b0, b1, ..., b13].
3. Transmission Rules:
o 14.4/9.6 kbit/s: Always transmit.
o 7.2/4.8 kbit/s: Transmit first group if bi=0, i​=0 (i = 0,...,7); otherwise,
transmit second.

Benefits of Pseudorandom Gating

• Interference Management: Different gating for each user helps "smear out"
interference, ensuring that users do not experience simultaneous interference
from all other users.
4. Spreading and Modulation in
the Downlink
Encoded Data Stream
• Data Rate: 19.2 kbit/s (1/3 lower than uplink).
• Process Steps:
• Scrambling: Using long spreading sequence.
• Spreading: Employing Walsh sequences.
• Modulation: In-phase (I) and Quadrature-phase (Q) components.
Step 1: Scrambling
• Long Spreading Sequence:
• Chip rate: 1.2288 Mchip/s.
• Decimation: Every 64th chip used to achieve 19.2 kchip/s.
• Operation: Decimated sequence added modulo-2 to data stream.
Step 2: Spreading with Walsh Sequences
• Walsh Sequences:
• Used for channelization and spreading.
• Each traffic channel assigned a unique Walsh sequence at 1.2288 Mchip/s.
• Repetition: Periodically repeated every 64 chips, multiplied by scrambled data.
Step 3: Modulation
• Output Processing:
• Multiplied separately in I- and Q-branches by short spreading sequences.
• Modulation Format:
• Uses Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).
Lower Data Rate Provisions
• Options for Lower Rates: Supports rates < 9.6 kbit/s or a 14.4 kbit/s
source.
• Symbol Repetition: Maintains maximum data rates; energy per symbol
reduced proportionally.
Uplink vs. Downlink Spreading
Schemes
Asymmetry in Cellular Systems
• Downlink Characteristics:
• Synchronous Transmission: Signals from Base Station (BS) to Mobile Stations
(MS) transmitted simultaneously.
• Orthogonal Codes: Perfectly orthogonal Walsh codes can be used for spreading.
• Separation Capability: Signals can be perfectly separated at the receiver due to
uniform attenuation and distortion.
• Spreading Factor: 64 users, with a maximum coded source data rate of 19.2
kbit/s.
• Short Spreading Sequences: Used to distinguish between different BSs.
Uplink Characteristics
• Asynchronous Reception: Signals from different users arrive at
different times, making Walsh codes unsuitable for user separation.
• High Cross-Correlation: Walsh codes have high cross-correlation with
arbitrary time shifts, complicating separation.
• Channelization via PN-Sequences: Low cross-correlation for arbitrary
time shifts allows effective user separation.
• Walsh Codes in Modulation: Used to represent 6 bits with a 64-chip
symbol, providing redundancy and error correction.
6. HANDOVER
• Soft Handover Enhances performance for Mobile Stations (MSs), especially at cell
edges.
Pilot Signal Mechanism
• Pilot Signals: Each Base Station (BS) transmits the same PN-sequence with a 64-
chip offset.
• Total Pilots: Up to 512 possible pilot signals observed by MS.
Pilot Sets Classification
• Active Set:
• Contains pilots available to the MS (up to 6).
• Candidate Set:
• Strong enough to be demodulated but not in the active set.
• Neighbor Set:
• Nearby BSs with insufficient strength to enter the candidate set.
• Regularly updated list sent by the BS.
Monitoring and Assignment
• Thresholds:
• T_ADD: Threshold for adding a new pilot to the candidate set.
• T_COMP: Threshold for moving a pilot to the active set.
• Pilot Strength Measurement:
• MS sends a Pilot Strength Measurement Message (PSMM) if a pilot exceeds T_ADD.
• BS can direct the MS to add pilots.
Communication During Soft Handover
• Downlink: MS combines signals from multiple BSs, providing combining gain.
• Uplink: BSs in the active set select the one with the best signal quality for
demodulation, providing selection gain.