GENERAL PHYSICS

Length and
time
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
LENGTH MEASUREMENT
- Ruler

- Micrometer screw gauge

VOLUME MEASUREMENT
- Measuring cylinder

36.5 cm3
OBTAINING AVERAGES
- Rather than measuring the thickness of a single sheet of paper, it
is more accurate to measure the thickness of 1000 sheets of paper
and calculate the average:

- Rather than to calculate the time taken for a single pendulum

swing, it is more accurate to measure the time taken from 100
swings and average the results:
GENERAL PHYSICS
Motion
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Speed and velocity
- Speed is the change in distance per second

- Velocity is the change in displacement per second

Speed = 1000m / 2000s =

0.5m/s
Velocity = 0 / 2000 = 0 m/s
Acceleration
- Acceleration is the change in velocity per second (ms-2)

- Positive acceleration is when an object increases velocity over

time
- Negative acceleration is when an object decreases velocity over
time (deceleration)
Free fall
- Any object close to the earth’s surface will be pulled by the earth’s gravity
(Fg)
- Gravity causes objects to free fall at a constant acceleration of 9.8ms-2
- Air resistance opposes gravity
- Eventually the downward force of gravity and the upward force of air
resistance will be the same
- Object will stop accelerating, and fall at a constant velocity (terminal
velocity)
Distance-time graphs
- Distance time graphs plot
distance travelled against time
- Speed of travel can be calculated
via the gradient of the graph

Speed of travel between 0-6s

- The change in X axis = 10m
- The change in Y axis = 6s
- Gradient (speed) = 10/6 = 1.67
m/s
Speed-time graphs
- A speed-time graphs plots speed against time
- Distance traveled can be calculated via the area
underneath the graph
- Acceleration can be calculated by the gradient
on the graph
GENERAL PHYSICS
Mass and
weight
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Mass
- The amount of matter that makes up an object
- Measured in kilograms (Kg)
- All masses have inertia (resistance to change in motion)
- The larger the mass, the larger the inertia
Weight
- Force on a mass due to gravity
- Measured in newtons (N)

g (9.8 m/s2), m (Kg), W (N)

GENERAL PHYSICS
Density
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Density formula
Or kg/m3) = mass (kg) /
volume (m3)
Density measurement – Liquid
- Put measuring cylinder on weighing scale
and reset to zero
- Pour liquid into measuring cylinder and
measure volume
- Measure weight of liquid by reading off the
weighing scale
- Calculate density via mass / volume ??? KG
Density measurement – regular
solid
- Measure dimensions of solid
(height/width/length)

height
- Calculate volume of solid (height X width
X length)
Wid
th n gth
- Measure mass of solid with weighing le
scale
- Density = mass / volume ??? KG
Density measurement –
Irregular solid
- Measure weight of solid via weighing scale
- Add water into measuring cylinder and measure initial
volume
- Submerge solid into the water
- Measure the final volume of water in the cylinder
- Volume of solid = final volume – initial volume
- Density = mass / volume
??? KG
Final
volume
Initial
volume
Flotation / buoyancy
- Object will float if it is less dense than the liquid it is placed in
- Object will sink if it is more dense than the liquid it is placed in
GENERAL PHYSICS
Forces
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
What are forces?
- A force is a push or pull that causes a change in speed, direction, or
shape of an object
 Effects of forces on a spring
- When a load is hung off a spring, it causes a downward force on
the spring
- The amount of extension will depend on the amount of force
- EXPERIMENT:
1. Measure original position of spring without any mass (L0)
2. Add 100g mass and measure the position of spring again (L1)
3. Calculate extension I.e. change in length L1 – L0
4. Then add another 100g mass (total=200g) and measure new
length (L2)
5. calculate extension L2 – L0
6. Repeat the process until a total of 600g mass is added
Effects of forces on a spring
Mass (kg) Force (N) Length (cm) Extension
0 0 10 0
100 1000 20 10
200 2000 30 20
300 3000 40 30
400 4000 50 40
500 5000 65 55
600 6000 68 58
Extension load graph
- Hooke’s law: Extension directly proportional to
force applied until the limit of proportionality
reached

- Further force causes non-proportional extension,

but original shape is still restored after removal of
force
- After elastic limit, the original shape of the
spring is not restored even after the removal of
force
- If force applied is too great, the spring may
break
Force  Acceleration
- A net force on an object will cause acceleration

- Forces are vector quantities, and therefore act in a

specific direction
- The resultant force is the overall force when the
size and direction of all forces acting are taken into
account
- Forces in the same direction are added
- Forces in opposite directions are subtracted
Centripetal force
- Centripetal force is the force that causes an
object to move in a circle
- The force always acts at a right angle to the
direction of movement of object
- Force constantly changes the direction of
the object without changing the speed
- Since velocity is a vector quantity, the
velocity is changing, and therefore the object
is accelerating
- Centripetal force increases if:
1. The mass of the object increases
2. The speed of the object increases
3. The radius of the circle decreases
Friction and air resistance
- Friction is a force between two surfaces which impedes motion and
results in heating
- It is the resistance that one object encounters when moving over another
object
- Air resistance is a form of friction

- Air molecules will collide against free falling objects in the air, creating an
upwards force which opposes the downward force of gravity
Moments (turning effect)
- The moment of a force about a pivot is equal to force multiplied by the
perpendicular distance from the pivot

- When the clockwise moment > anticlockwise moment, the resultant moment
= clockwise
- When the anticlockwise moment > clockwise moment, the resultant moment
= anticlockwise
- An object is in equilibrium if there is no resultant moment i.e. clockwise
moment = anticlockwise moment
Examples
Centre of mass
- Centre of mass is the point on an object where the
overall mass can be considered to be concentrated,
and hence where the weight of the object is
considered to act

- The center of mass of a plane lamina can be

determined with a simple experiment
1. Push pin through point anywhere on edge of
lamina
2. Allow lamina to swing and eventually hang still
3. Mark a vertical line dowards
4. Take out pin and push through a second point
5. Again, let the lamina settle and mark a second
vertical line
6. The point of intersection between two lines =
center of mass
Stability
- The stability of an object is determined by its center of mass
- An object is stable if its weight (the force acting on center of mass)
is inside the base of the object
- An object will tip over if the weight falls outside the base of the
object
Vectors and scalars
- Vector quantities have magnitude and direction
- Scalar quantities have magnitude only
- The resultant vector of two vector quantities can be calculated via
scale diagrams

WHAT IS THE RESULTANT

VECTOR???

Use Pythagoras theorem

Scale diagram
Scale diagrams
1. Choose a scale to draw on paper i.e. 1N = 1cm
2. Re-draw the diagram on paper with appropriate lengths and angles
3. Arrange forces nose-to-tail
4. Draw the resultant force in the direction of the arrows, and measure the length
5. Revert units back from cm into N i.e. 12cm = 12N
GENERAL PHYSICS
Momentum
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Momentum and impulse
- Moment is mass in motion, and any moving object will have momentum

- A change moment is impulse

- Momentum is always conserved

- Consider a collision between object 1 and object 2
- Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
GENERAL PHYSICS
Energy, work and
power
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Energy
- Energy is always conserved
- It is never created or
destroyed
- Rather, energy is transferred
or transformed from one form
to another.
E=Pxt
Work done
W=Fxd
Power
P = W/t or E/t
Conservation of energy
- In a light bulb, electrical energy is transformed into heat
energy and light energy
- In a water fall, gravitational energy is transformed into kinetic
energy
- In a battery, chemical energy is transformed into electrical
energy
Kinetic energy
- Energy of a moving
object

Answer = C
Gravitational potential energy

Answer = A
Efficiency
Energy resources
GENERAL PHYSICS
Pressure
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Pressure
- Pressure is the force exerted per unit area
Liquid Pressure
- Pressure beneath liquid surface can be calculated

Total Pressure = Liquid Pressure + Atmospheric

Pressure
Gas pressure

P 1 V1 = P 2 V2
Pressure of a gas
- Pressure of a gas is defined as a change of momentum of particles
striking the walls of the container, exerting force
Pressure of a gas
-Higher temperature (at constant volume)  Stronger collisions
against container wall  Exerts more force on container wall 
Increases pressure

- Lower volume (at constant temperature)  Stronger & more

frequent collisions against container wall  Exerts more force on
container wall  Increases pressure
Boyle’s law states that for a fixed mass of gas at a
constant temperature, the volume is inversely
proportional to the applied pressure
THERMAL PHYSICS
Simple kinetic
molecular model
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
States of matter
Temperature
- Temperature is the average kinetic energy of particles within a
substance

- Heating a substance causes particles to move quicker, therefore

increasing their kinetic energies, and hence increasing the
temperature

- Heating can change the state of matter of a substance:

Brownian motion
- One day, a scientist was observing a pollen grain suspended in water.
- He realized that the pollen grain was actually moving in random motion
- Brownian motion is the random movement of particles in a fluid due to
bombardment of molecules of the fluid itself
 Evaporation
- Evaporation is the change from liquid to gas
below the boiling point
- Not all particles in a liquid have the same kinetic
energy
- Some particles may be moving quicker (higher
energy), and some may be moving slower (lower
energy)
- Remember: the AVERAGE kinetic energy =
temperature
- Particles with a large amount of kinetic
energy may overcome attractive forces and
escape the surface of the liquid as a gas
- Since most energetic particles escape, it will
lower the temperature (average kinetic energy) of
the liquid
- Factors that cause increased evaporation
1. Higher temperature
2. Larger surface area
THERMAL PHYSICS
Thermal properties
& temperature
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Thermal expansion
- Solids, liquids, and gases expand when heating
- This is because particles gain more kinetic energy when heated,
and therefore gain more separation from neighboring particles
- The extent of expansion varies:
1. Solids expand the least
2. Liquids expand more than solids
3. Gases expand more than liquids
Thermal expansion of solids
- Railway tracks have a small gap to account for thermal expansion
- If there were no gaps, the expansion would cause misalignment problems

The rails in the above image are the result of the These gaps give room for expansion during hot weather
thermal expansion and lack of gap between the
adjacent rails.
Thermal expansion of a liquid
- Thermal expansion of liquids are used in liquid-in-glass
thermometers
- When thermometer placed in hot liquid, the alcohol or mercury
expands
- This forces the liquid to move up the narrow tube
Thermal expansion of a gas
- When temperature of a gas is increased, particles gain more
kinetic energy
- This means the gas will take up more space (volume) if allowed
Thermal definitions
Internal energy
• Energy contained within the system
• If an object is heated, since the particles gain more kinetic energy, the internal energy
is increased

Specific heat capacity

• Amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1Kg of that material by 1°C
• In other words, the energy required to raise the temperature
The concept of melting
- Solid  Liquid
- As solid is heated, temperature
rises until MP is met
- Once MP reached, solid will
transition into a liquid
- During transition phase,
temperature is constant
- Once solid has fully melted,
temperature of liquid rises again
- Latent heat of fusion is the
energy required to melt a solid at
melting point
Concept of boiling
- Liquid  Gas
- As liquid heated, temperature of liquid
rises until BP is met
- Once BP reached, temperature stays
constant as liquid becomes a gas
- Once liquid has fully boiled into gas,
temperature of the gas begins to rise
- Latent heat of vaporization is the
energy required to vapourize a liquid at
boiling point
Boiling vs evaporation
- Boiling and evaporation is a change in state from liquid  Solid
- Differences:
- Boiling occurs at a fixed temperature
- Evaporation can occur at all temperatures, including below the
boiling point
- Evaporation decreases the temperature of the remaining
liquid.
- During boiling the temperature remains constant.
THERMAL PHYSICS
Thermal processes
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Conduction –Good conductors
- Conduction is the process by which heat or electricity is directly transmitted through the
material of a substance
- Occurs via molecular vibrations (transfer of kinetic energy through the structure)
- Metals are good conductors because of their structures:

- When one end of metal is heated, particles gain kinetic energy and vibrate quicker
- This causes neighboring particles to vibrate quicker and results in a domino effect across the structure
- Through the transfer of kinetic energy in the form of vibrations, heat is transferred from one end to the other
- Free electrons are highly mobile and rapidly quickens the transmission of energy
Metal conduction experiment
- Demonstration of copper being a
good conductor
- As copper bar is heated, the
drawing pins will fall off one (from
the one closest to the heat)
- This is because the metal conducts
heat from the hot end to the cold
end
- Heat melts the wax and therefore
drops the pins
Conduction - Poor conductors
- Insulators are very poor conductors such as rubber
- Absence of free electrons makes the passage of vibrations/kinetic
energy very difficult
- Water is a poor conductor

- As the water at the top of boiling tube is

heated, it eventually boils
- However, the ice at the bottom does not melt
- Heat therefore does not reach the bottom of
the tube
Convection
- Convection is a method of heat transfer strictly in liquids and
gases
Radiation – Emission
experiment
- Infra-red radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum , and is emitted by any hot object
- Infra-red can be emitted, absorbed, or reflected
- Different types of surfaces can affect the emission and absorption of infra-red radiation

Set-up & procedure

•A metal cube with is painted with 4 different
types of surfaces: matt black, shiny black,
white and silver
•The cube is filled with boiling water
•A heat detector is placed at a constant
distance away from the cube i.e. 50cm
•The cube is rotated so that each side faces
the heat detector in turn, and the readings are
noted

Results (in order of emission levels)

•Matt black (highest) -> Shiny black -> White -
> Silver (lowest)
Radiation – Absorption
experiment
Set-up & procedure
•A radiant heater is placed in the middle of two plates at
equal distance away from the heater
•One plate is matt black and the other is silver
•A thermometer is placed on each plate and initial reads
of the thermometers are recorded
•The heater is switched on and the temperatures of each
of the plates are measured in equal intervals

Results:
•The temperature of the matt black plate will increase
quicker than the silver
•Matt black surfaces are therefore better absorbers of
radiation
WAVES, LIGHT,
SOUND
Wave properties
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Waves
- Waves transfer energy from one place to another without the
transfer of particles themselves in the medium
- Particles vibrate in fixed positions
Types of waves
- Longitudinal waves
- Particles vibrate parallel to direction of
wave
- Compressions (particles closest together)
and rarefactions (particles furthest apart)
- sound is longitudinal

- Transverse waves
- Particles vibrate perpendicular to wave
direction
- Peaks (particles highest from rest
position) and troughs (particles lowest
from rest position)
 Important definitions
Wavelength is the distance between adjacent
particles that are at the same point in their vibration
In a transverse wave, it is the distance between
two adjacent peaks or troughs
In a longitudinal wave, it is the distance between
two adjacent compressions or rarefactions
Amplitude is the maximum displacement of
particles from rest position
In transverse waves, it is the distance between the
rest position to the peak
Velocity of the wave is the distance traveled per
second, and is measured in m/s
Frequency of the wave is the number of complete
waves passing a point per second, and is measured
in hertz (Hz)
Wavefronts are the locations of all particles of the
medium in the same state of vibration. It is
perpendicular to wave direction. The distance
between one wavefront to the next is the wavelength
Reflection, refraction and
diffraction
REFLECTION
- When waves hit a plane surface, it will become reflected
- The frequency/speed/wavelength stays the same
- Using a ripple tank can demonstrate this
Reflection, refraction and
diffraction
REFRACTION
- Speed of light changes when a wave travels from one medium to
another medium with a different density
- This causes the direction of the wave to change
- Water travels more slowly in shallow water compared to deep
water:
Reflection, refraction and
diffraction
DIFFRACTION
- Waves spread out when passing through a narrow gap or across the edge of an
object
- As water passes the gap, it spreads out as follows:
- Extent of diffraction depends on size of gap
compared to wavelength
- Diffraction can also occur at edge of barrier
- Longer wavelength = greater diffraction
Electromagnetic Wavbes
All EM waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum (approximately 3 x 108 m/s).
o Radio Waves: Used in communication (TV, radio).
o Microwaves: Used in cooking, radar, and satellite communications.
o Infrared (IR): Used in night vision and remote controls.
o Visible Light: The range of light visible to the human eye.
o Ultraviolet (UV): Causes sunburn and is used in sterilizing equipment.
o X-rays: Used in medical imaging and cancer treatment.
o Gamma Rays: Used in nuclear medicine and cancer treatment.
WAVES, LIGHT,
SOUND
Light
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Reflection of light
- Incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal are all
on the same plane
- Angles of incidence and reflection are measured in
relation to the normal
- Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Mirror reflection
- Mirrors reflect light coming from
objects which then enter our eyes
- Ray diagrams can demonstrate how
an image of an object is formed inside
the mirror:
1. Trace 2 incident rays from object
2. Trace the reflected rays (remember:
angle of incident = angle of reflection)
3. Trace back the rays into the mirror
4. The point of intersection between
two rays behind the mirror is where
the image is formed
Properties of mirror images
- Mirror images are virtual images
Virtual images are formed when light APPEARS to converge in a
location which forms an image
Real images are formed when light ACTUALLY convergences in a
location which forms an image
- Same size as the actual object
- Same distance away from the mirror as the actual object
- Laterally inverted
Real vs virtual image
Refraction of light
- Light travels at different speeds depending on the refractive index
of the material
- Every material (medium) has a different refractive index
The higher the refractive index, the slower light travels
The lower the refractive index, the faster light travels
- Generally the denser the material the higher the refractive index
Refraction of light through
mediums
- Consider light travelling from A to B
- There are two possible scenarios:
1. Refractive index of A is lower than refractive
index of B
2. Refractive index of A is higher than refractive
index of B

- Consider light going from air into glass, and then

going back out the other end
- Air has a lower refractive index than glass
- When light enters, it travels from low to high index
- When light leaves, it travels from high to low index

•i = angle of incidence
•r = angle of refraction
•Light slows down as it enters a higher index
material, therefore bends towards the normal
•Light speeds up as it enters a lower index material,
therefore bends away from the normal
The critical angle & total internal
reflection
- Consider light rays going from a medium of
higher to lower index
- Light bends away from the normal
- As angle of incidence increases, angle of
refraction increases as well
- If the angle of refraction is larger than 90, that
means that the entire light is reflected back into
the medium (total internal reflection)
- The critical angle is this limit – it is the angle of
incidence that causes an angle of refraction of 90
- When the angle of incidence is larger than the
critical angle, then we get total internal reflection
Total internal reflection in
optical fibres
- Total internal reflection is used in optical
fibres
- Optical fibre has a thin glass core with a
outer cladding with a lower refractive
index
- Total internal reflection occurs for all
rays that hit the boundary between core
and cladding at a angle larger than the
critical angle
White light and dispersion
- White light is a complex combination of all of the
different wavelengths of the visible spectrum
- Each of the wavelengths have a different colour i.e.
green has a wavelength of 500nm and red has a
wavelength of 700nm
- Light of a single frequency is called monochromatic
light
- Combining all monochromatic light results in ‘white
light’
- We can separate out the different wavelengths by
using a prism
- This is called dispersion
Thin converging lens
- Light coming from a very distance
object are considered parallel rays
- When parallel rays pass a convex
(converging) lens, light rays are
focused at a single point called the
principle focus
- The imaginary horizontal line at right
angles to the lens is the principle
axis
- The distance from the lens center to
the principle focus is the focal length
Ray diagrams
- Light travels from an object, passes through a
convex lens, and forms an image
- It is your job to trace the light rays and
determine the size and position of the image
- All convex lenses will have a focal point (or
principle focus)
The focal point and focal length is the same
on either side of the lens
- The initial construction will look like this:

- Consider an object being placed on the left

hand side
- There are three position positions for the object
1. 2F and beyond
2. Between 2F and F
3. between F and the lens

- The resulting image of the object will be

different depending on these positions!
Ray tracing: Object beyond 2F
- From the top of the object, draw three
rays as shown
- The point at which these three lines
meet is where the imagine is positioned
- This results in an image that is real,
inverted, and diminished
Ray tracing: Between 2F and F
- From the top of the object, draw three
rays as shown
- This results in an image that is real,
inverted, and magnified
Ray tracing: Between F and the
lens
- The image is virtual, upright and
magnified
WAVES, LIGHT,
SOUND
Sound
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Production of sound
- Sound is a result of vibrating objects that cause a vibration
of air molecules
- Sound is a longitudinal wave (with compressions and
rarefactions)
- We hear sound when sound waves reach our ear which
causes vibrations in our ear drums
- We hear frequencies of 20 Hz to 20KHz
- All waves (including sound) have a frequency and amplitude
1. Frequency (Hz) is the number of waves that passes
a fixed point her second
The higher the frequency the higher the
pitch
2. The amplitude of the wave is the maximum
displacement of the vibration particles
The larger the amplitude, the louder the
sound
Speed of sound
- Sound cannot travel through vacuum
- Sound must be transmitted through vibrations of particles within a medium
- The closer the particles are within the medium, the faster sound will travel

AIR = 330 m/s

WATER = 1500 m/s
METALS = 5000 m/s

- Air particles are very spread out, so sound does not travel very fast
- Metals on the other hand are usually solids, and particles are much closer together
allowing quicker transmission of sound waves
Determining of speed of sound
in air
- Speed of sound in air is approximately 330 m/s
- We can experimentally proves this by using this set up:
1. Two microphones are separated by exactly 1m
2. They are connected to a digital timer that starts when it gets signal from mic 1 and stops when it gets a
signal from mic 2
3. A hammer is used to hit a metal block to make sound

- The timer will record to travel between mic 1 to mic 2 the time taken from sound (i.e. 0.003 seconds)
- Since speed = distance / time
1m / 0.003 = 330 m/s
Echoes
- When sound waves get reflected off a surface, it generates an
echo
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM
Simple phenomena
of magnetism
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
MAGNETISM
• All magnets are made of ferromagnetic material (mainly
iron/steel)
• All magnets have a north and south pole

• Ferromagnetic materials have smaller magnetic units called

domains

Not a magnet / Magnet /

Non- Magnetized
 Induced magnetism
• By placing a magnet near a piece of iron, the iron will
become magnetized
• This is because the magnet will cause the iron domains to
align themselves

Iron loses magnetism very quickly therefore it is a temporary magnet

Steel retains some of its magnetism so becomes a permanent magnet (until demagnetized)
Magnetic field lines
Magnetic field in a wire
• Current flowing through a straight wire will also produce a
magnetic field
• A magnetic field around a coil of wire will produce a
magnetic field that is identical to a bar magnet
Right hand grip rule

N S
Magnetization
[Link]

2. Placing solenoid inside coil of wire with direct current

Methods of Demagnetization
1. Heating
2. Hammering

3. Using alternating current instead of direct current

Permanent vs electromagnets
 Permanent magnets are designed with hard magnetic material and
used for purposes where magnetism is needed over a long period of
time i.e. fridge doors
 Electromagnets use a solenoid to create a magnetic field. It is used
for when a magnetic field needs to be turned on and off i.e. scrap
metal moving.
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM
Electrical
quantities
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
CONDUCTORS & INSULATORS
 A conductor is something which allows electric current to flow
through it freely whereas an insulator prevents any electric current
flowing through it.
 Conductors have free flowing electrons which allow the passage of
electric current through the structure i.e. metals
Insulators have tightly bound electrons that are not free to move in
the structure i.e. rubber
ELECTRIC CHARGE
 Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to
experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. The
unit for charge is coulombs
 There are positive charges and negative charges. Opposite
charges attract and like charges repel.
Electricity background – current
• Whilst electricity is the flow of electrons (from –ve to +ve)
• Current is the flow of positive charge (from +ve to –ve)
Electric Current
Electric Current
•Definition: The flow of electric charge (usually electrons) through a conductor.
•Unit: Ampere (A)
ELECTRIC FIELD
 A region around an electric charge where another charge
experiences a force is called an electric field.
The field lines show the direction a positive charge would move if
placed in the field.

POINT PARALLEL
CHARGE PLATE
CHARGING A BODY
 Charging a body involves the addition or removal of electrons.
 There are three main ways that we can charge a body: Friction,
conduction, induction
CHARGING BY FRICTION
 Different materials have different electron affinities
(i.e. love for electrons)
 When an object is rubbed over another object, the
electrons get transferred from one object to another
due to friction.
 The electrons will move from the material of lower
electron affinity to the material with higher electron
affinity
 The object that loses electrons becomes positively
charged and the object that accepts electrons
become negative charged.
 This only works for insulators because the
transferred electrons cannot be redistributed
 In metals, the gained/lost electrons are
immediately redistributed to discharge the material
 CHARGING BY INDUCTION
 The process of charging the uncharged object by bringing another
charged object near to it, but not touching it, is called charging by
induction.

A ground is simply a large object that serves as an almost infinite source of

electrons or sink for electrons. A ground contains such vast space that it is the ideal
object to either receive electrons or supply electrons to whatever object needs to
get rid of them or receive them.
 CURRENT
• Current is the rate of flow of charge
Charge (C)

Current
(A) Time (s)

• In metals, current is due to the flow of electrons.

• The direction of conventional current is opposite to the direction of
electron flow.

Electrons flow from the negative to positive terminal.

Conventional current flows from the positive to
negative terminal.
 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
• An electrical supply (a power pack, cell or battery) provides
electrical energy which drives charge around a complete circuit
• The electromotive force (e.m.f) of a supply is the energy provided
per coulomb of charge and is measured in volts (V).

Battery converts chemical energy

into electrical energy which is
supplied to the charge

• V = EMF 9V battery supplies 9J of energy per

coulomb of charge
• W = Work (energy)
• Q = charge in coulombs, C
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
• The potential difference or voltage across a component in a circuit is the energy
required per coulomb of charge to drive the current through that component (i.e
lamp).
• Or simply, it is the amount of electrical energy converted into other forms (i.e.
light) per coulomb of charge
• It is also measured in volts (V).
Bulb converts electrical energy into
light energy

• V = Potential difference A 1V lamp converts 1J of electrical energy into light energy

• W = Work (energy) per coulomb of charge. It also means that 1J of energy per
• Q = charge in coulombs, C coulomb of charge is needed to drive current through the
lamp.
 RESISTANCE
• The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition
to the flow of electric current
• Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω)
• How to find the resistance of an unknown resistor

Unknown resistor

Voltmeter
Ammeter
RESISTANCE OF AN UNKNWON
RESISTOR
• The method before means that we are only working with one set of
readings.
• If we wanted to increase accuracy, we would want multiple
measurements of voltage & current and therefore calculate
resistance several times and average the results.
• By changing the resistance of the variable resistor, the current and
potential difference across the unknown resistor will change too
• As you change the resistance of the variable resistor, calculate the
resistance of the unknown resistor at each step using R = V/I
• You should end up with multiple (similar) values for the resistance of
the unknown resistor
• Average the results

Known resistance
that can be
altered
 RESISTANCE OF A WIRE
•The resistance of a wire can depend on two main things:
1. Length (of wire)
2. Area (of wire)
When the length of the wire is increased, the
current must travel further in the wire and thus
resistance increases

When the cross-sectional area of the wire is

increased (i.e. larger wire diameter) the current
has a greater area to travel through so the
resistance decreases.
ELECTRICAL WORKING
• Electrical energy is transferred from the battery or power supply in
a circuit to the components in the circuit via the electrons.
•The components will covert the electrical energy into other forms
(i.e. a lamp will convert electrical energy into light energy).
• The rate at which the energy is transformed is the power. Power
can be calculated from the formula below.
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM
Electrical
circuits
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS
SERIES VS PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Series circuit forms a single Parallel circuits have

path. multiple branching pathways
for electrical current
SERIES VS PARALLEL
Series Parallel
CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
1. Potentiometer
2. Relays
3. Diode
4. Input transducers
1. Thermistor
2. Light dependent resistor
VOLTAGE DIVIDER
A voltage divider is a simple circuit which turns a
large voltage into a smaller one. Using just two
series resistors and an input voltage, we can
create an output voltage that is a fraction of the
input.
POTENTIOMETER
• A potentiometer can give the circuit a certain level of control
i.e. volume control
• Fundamentally, a potentiometer can made from a variable
resistor.
• A variable resistor works by adjusting the path that current has
to flow.
• Take a look at the diagram on the right
- Resistor length X+Y • Sliding wire up will INCREASE the resistance
- Wire can move up or down the resistor by INCREASING length Y which INCREASES
- Vout is the voltage across length Y of resistor the output voltage.
- Changing length of X and Y by sliding the wire will change the
resistance of segment Y and therefore change Vout (i.e. V = I R) • Sliding wire down will DECREASE the
resistance by DECREASING length Y which
• If this set up is connected to another component, for example DECREASES the output voltage
an audio unit, then the variation of output voltage can
determine the volume of the unit i.e. larger the output volume
the larger the volume and vise versa.
RELAYS
• A relay is an electrically operated
switch.
• As electricity flows through the coil, it
can “energize” the relay and it turns the
coil into an electromagnet.
• The magnetic effect of this
electromagnet “attracts” the open
switch on the right and closes it to
connect the circuit.
• A small current through the left circuit
can be used to trigger the connection of
the second circuit on the right which has
a much higher current flowing through it.
DIODE
• A diode only allows one way flow of current through it (denoted by
the arrow or direction of the triangle in the circuit diagram).
• This property of the diode is used in the conversion of a.c. current
to d.c. current (rectification)

a.c. current – continuous change d.c. current – single direction of

in direction of current current
THERMISTORS
• A thermistor’s resistance decreases as the
temperature increases.
• It can therefore be used as a temperature sensor.
• The diagram below demonstrates a temperature
sensitive circuit:

• When the temperature rises, the resistance of the thermistor

decreases.
• This means that it takes a smaller share of the potential
Vout •
difference from the power supply whilst R1 takes a larger share.
The PD across the base (of transistor) is now large enough to
switch on the collector-emitter current.
• When a large current flows from the collector to the emitter, the
bulb begins to light.

This circuit can be used to turn on a temperature warning light for

electric devices such as cookers, hair straighteners etc.
LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTORS
• The light dependent resistor (LDR) has a resistance that decreases
as light intensity increases (similar to a thermistor). This means that
it can be used as a light sensor.
• The diagram below demonstrates a light sensitive circuit:

• When the light intensity decreases, the resistance

increases allowing the LDR (B) to take a larger share
of the PD form the power supply.
• This also means that the resistor (A) takes a smaller
share of the PD.
• The PD across the base is now large enough for the
base current to switch on the collector-emitter
current.
• When a large current flows from the collector to the
emitter, the bulb lights.
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM
Dangers of
electricity
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Electrical hazards
Damaged insulation
Electrocution can result in death
All electrical wires are therefore insulated
A damaged insulation can therefore be hazardous as it may result in an
electricity leak.
Overheating cables
Overheating cables can result in the melting of the wire insulation and
a consequent fire.
Damp conditions
The electrical resistance of the human body drastically decreases in
damp/wet conditions.
Wet conditions coupled with unsafe handling of electrical appliances
may lead to extremely large currents passing through the body
Safety circuit components
Fuse
A fuse is a thin piece of wire designed to carry a set
maximum electrical current
Current that is higher than the maximum will melt from
the heat
When it melts, it breaks the circuit and thus stops the
current flowing.
Circuit breakers
Prevents excessive current passing through the circuit
It is an automated switch which interrupts current flow
when abnormally high current is detected.
A current in the coil will magnetize the iron core which
attracts the iron rocker.
The larger the current the stronger the magnetic pull
When the current becomes too high, the iron rocker will
separate from the contacts therefore breaking the
circuit.
Safety circuit components
Earthing metal cases
An electric shock can occur if a live wire inside an electrical appliance came
loose and touched the metal casing (which is of course a conductor).
To prevent this from happening, the earth terminal can be connected to the
metal casing so that the electricity can pass through the earth instead of the
human body, and therefore avoiding electrocution.
ELECTRICITY &
MAGNETISM
Electromagneti
c effects
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Electromagnetic induction

A conductor (such as a wire) moving across a magnetic field or a

changing magnetic field linking with a conductor can induce an
e.m.f in the conductor.
When a bar magnet is moved towards and away from a coil, it
induces emf within the coil.
Magnetic field lines of the magnet get ‘cut’ from the coil.
Bar magnet moving towards
the coil
When the north pole of the bar magnetic is moved towards the coil
needle on the voltmeter briefly flick to the right, before returning to the
centre.
Coil cuts the magnetic field lines of the bar magnet.
This induces an emf across the coil which is measured by the voltmeter.

 The emf across the coil causes a current to flow

 The current causes the coil to act like a bar magnet.
 The direction of emf induced (and therefore the
north/south pole of the coil) will always oppose the
movement of the bar magnet
 If the north pole of the bar magnet moves towards one end of the
coil, a north pole will be induced at that end
Bar magnet moving away from
the coil
When the north pole of the bar magnetic is moved away from the
coil
needle on the voltmeter briefly flick to the left, before returning
to the centre.
Coil cuts the magnetic field lines in the opposite direction
The induced emf will also be in the opposite direction
 The direction of emf induced (and therefore the
north/south pole of the coil) will always oppose the
movement of the bar magnet
 If the north pole of the bar magnet away from one end of
the coil, a south pole will be induced at that end to oppose
movement
FORCE ON A CURRENT
CARRYING CONDUCTOR
 DC MOTOR
The poles of the magnet are curved to provide a circular
magnetic field.
This helps to keep the coil in a constant magnetic field.
Each side of the coil experiences a force due to the fact
that it is carrying current within a magnetic field.
This force causes the coil to rotation (clockwise in this case).

The split-ring communicator turns with the coil and is

always in contact with the brushes (which are fixed in
place) to ensure that current continues to flow to the coil.
Each time the coil reaches a vertical position, the two
sides of the communicator swap brushes.
This reverses the flow of current to ensure that the
force on each side also become reversed. This allows the
coil to continue spinning.
REMEMBER:
Conventional current direction is OPPOSITE to
electron direction
Magnitude of induced EMF
The magnitude of e.m.f induced in the coil can be increased by:
Moving the magnet faster
Putting more turns in the coil
Using a stronger magnet
A.C. generator
The two types of current
A.C is alternating current, where the direction of current changes
periodically
D.C. is direct current, which is unidirectional
The AC generator makes a.c. current using the fundamentals of
electromagnetic induction
A.C GENERATOR
2
Pay attention to
1
The coil with
corners A,B,C,D
Two slip rings which
are connected to
an external circuit
AB connected to
slip ring 2, DC
connected to slip
ring 1
Rotating coil
A.C GENERATOR
•Magnetic field lines go from north
pole to south pole
•As the coil rotates, it cuts the
magnetic field lines and induces
emf and current
•In diagram, side AB will cut the
magnetic field upwards and side CD
cuts the magnetic field downwards
•As the coil rotates, eventually AB
will cut the field downwards and CD
will cut it upwards
•Since the sides have now reversed,
the direction of induced current will
also become reversed when this
happens
FLEMINGS RIGHT HAND RULE

M C

M
C
F

CDAB
 AC VOLTAGE AGAINST TIME
VERTICAL

HORIZONTAL
HORIZONTAL
(coil moving)

VERTICAL
(coil moving)
TRANSFORMERS
A transformer increases or decreases the voltage of an alternating current.

•A step-down transformer produces an output voltage

that is less than the input voltage
• Secondary coil has less turns than the primary
coil

•A step-up transformer produces an output voltage that

is greater than the input voltage
• Secondary coil has more turns than the primary
•A step-up
coil transformer is use to step up voltage coming
from power stations onto powerlines that transmit
electricity
• Power from power station is constant i.e. P = VI
• Higher the voltage (V) the lower the current
(I)
• Lower current is good because less energy is lost as
TRANSOFMERS
ATOMIC PHYSICS
The nuclear
atom
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
The structure of an atom
- Elements are substances that are made of a single
type of atom
- Every atom has a central nucleus containing smaller
sub-atomic particles called protons and neutrons
- Protons and neutrons make up most of the weight of
the entire atom
Protons have a positive charge
Neutrons have no charge
- Electrons are much smaller (virtually weightless)
particles that orbit the nucleus
Electrons have a negative charge

- A neutral atom means that it has no net charge

meaning the number of protons (+) = number of
electrons (-)
- By losing or gaining electrons, atoms can become
charged – charged atoms are called ions
- Proton number = number of protons
- Nucleon (mass) number = sum of protons +
neutrons
 What makes an atom unique?
- There are currently 109 different atoms we know of
Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen etc. are all examples of
atoms
- A substance made entirely of just one type of atom is
called an element
- Every atom has a different number of protons in the
nucleus
- This also means that each atom has a different number
of electrons (since neutron atoms have equal
protons/electrons)
- Different atoms behave differently because of the
difference in proton/electron numbers
Isotopes
- Isotopes are variants of the same atom
- Isotopes have the same proton/electron number, but they have a different neutron
number
- Isotopes therefore have the same proton number but different mass number

Mass numbers
Nuclear fission and fusion
- Two nuclei can interact by either fusing or breaking apart into
smaller pieces
- Nuclear fusion is the process by which two light nuclei combine
together and realse vast amount of energy
- Nuclear fission is when an unstable heavy nucleus splits into
two smaller nuclei
Nuclide
- For any given atom:
- Proton number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus
- Nucleon number (A) is the sum of protons and neutrons

The nuclide of an atom represents these values in the form of:

The discovery of the nucleus
- Small positive particles (alpha particles) were fired at a thin gold
foil
- Pathway of particles after colliding with foil was observed and
interpreted
ATOMIC PHYSICS
Radioactivity
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Radioactive decay
- Radioactivity decay is a spontaneous transformation of an unstable atomic nucleus which releases
radiation in the form of alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays
- In alpha decay, alpha particles are emitted from the original nucleus
Each alpha particle is equal to a helium nucleus: 2 protons & 2 neutrons i.e. Z = 2 & A = 4

- In beta decay, a neutron is converted into a proton and an electron

- The electron is fired out of the nucleus whilst the proton remains
Neutron number therefore decreases by 1 & proton number increases by 1

- In gamma decay, the number of protons and neutrons are unchanged

- The gamma ray takes away some of the excess energy after the nucleus has emitted an alpha or beta
particle
Characteristics of radioactive
particles
- As mentioned above radioactive decay results
in the emission of three types of radiation alpha
(α), beta(β) , and gamma (γ)
- These are ionizing radiations meaning it has
the ability to remove electrons from atoms that
they collide with (this is called ionizing effect)
- Once an atom loses an electron, there is a
charge imbalance i.e. more protons than
electrons, causing the atom to become an
positively charged ion
Effect of electric fields
Effect of magnetic fields
Half life
- A sample of a radioactive material decays and the
activity decreases with time
- The activity is the number of radioactive particles
emitted per second
- As number of unstable nuclei decreases, the
number of emitted particles become reduced too
- It is different to assess when a sample of
radioactive material completely stops because the
activity never really falls to zero
- But we can measure the half life instead
- The half life of a radioactive isotope is the
time taken for half of the nuclei in the sample
to dacay (or the time taken for the activity of
a sample to fall to half of the original value)
Safety precautions
- Ionizing radiation can kill or damage human cells
- This can cause DNA mutation that can eventually lead to cancer
- It is therefore important for people that are working with this sort
of radiation to keep safe from it
- Radiation workers wear film badges, which monitors the dose of
radiation exposed
- This allows them to ensure that they are not exposed to levels that
are unsafe
Detection of radioactivity
- G-M tube
GM tube detects ions produced when alpha,
beta or gamma radiation enters the tube
- It is attached to a counter that registers a
count each time a radioactive particle is
detected
SPACE PHYSICS
Space
physics
CAMBRIDGE IN 5 MINUTES
Space Physics
 The Universe: The universe contains billions of galaxies. Each galaxy contains billions of stars, and our galaxy is
called the Milky Way.

 The Solar System: Our solar system consists of the Sun, 8 planets, moons, dwarf planets, comets, and
asteroids. The planets orbit the Sun in elliptical paths due to gravitational force.

 Inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars (rocky and smaller).

 Outer planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune (gas giants and ice giants).
The Earth & Moon
The Earth, Moon, and Sun

 Earth rotates on its axis every 24 hours, causing day and night.

 Earth orbits the Sun in a 365-day year.

The Moon:

 The Moon orbits Earth in about 28 days.

 Phases of the Moon (New Moon, First Quarter, Full Moon, Third Quarter) are due to the changing positions of the Sun,
Earth, and Moon.
Orbital Speed

 Light Year

Distance travelled by the light in one year

Life cycle of stars
Big Bang Theory
 Big Bang Theory: The most widely accepted explanation for the origin of the universe. It states that the
universe began from an extremely hot and dense state and has been expanding ever since.

Evidence:

 Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation: The afterglow of the Big Bang.

 Redshift: The observed stretching of light from distant galaxies, indicating they are moving away from us,
supporting the expansion of the universe.
Hubble’s Law