THEORY OF METAL
CUTTING
By
Khairun Nasrin Rimi
Lecturer
World University of Bangladesh
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Machining
Machining is a semi-finishing or finishing process essentially done to
impart required or stipulated dimensional and form accuracy and
surface finish to enable the product to
• fulfill its basic functional requirements
• provide better or improved performance
• render long service life
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Types of cutting tool
Single point cutting tool:
The cutting tool, which has only one cutting edge, is termed as single
point cutting tool. e.g., turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting
tools and boring tools.
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Multi point cutting tool:
A cutting tool which has more than one cutting edge is multi point cutting
tool. e.g., drilling, milling, grinding etc.
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Concept of rake and clearance angles of
cutting tools.
The word tool geometry is basically referred to some specific angles or slope of the
salient faces and edges of the tools at their cutting point. Rake angle and clearance
angle are the most significant for all the cutting tools.
Fig: Rake and clearance angles of cutting tools.
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Rake angle (γ): Angle of inclination of rake surface from reference plane
Clearance angle (α): Angle of inclination of clearance or flank surface from the finished surface
Rake angle is provided for ease of chip flow and overall machining. Rake angle may be positive, or
negative or even zero
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Relative advantages of such rake angles are:
Positive rake – helps reduce cutting force and thus cutting power requirement.
Negative rake – to increase edge-strength and life of the tool
Zero rake – to simplify design and manufacture of the form tools.
Clearance angle is essentially provided to avoid rubbing of the tool (flank) with the machined surface which causes
loss of energy and damages of both the tool and the job surface. Hence, clearance angle is a must and must be
positive (3° ~ 15° ) depending upon tool-work materials and type of the machining operations like turning, drilling,
boring etc.
Systems of description of tool geometry
• It consists of a sharpened cutting edge called its point.
• The point is bounded by the face, the side plant , the end
plank and the base
• The point where the end and side cutting edge meets is
called the nose of the tools.
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Basic features of single point tool
Types of cutting process
• Orthogonal Cutting In orthogonal
cutting, the tool approaches the work
piece with its cutting edge
parallel to the uncut surface and at right
angles to the
direction of cutting (90 degree).
• Oblique Cutting
In oblique cutting , the cutting edge of the t
ool is inclined at an acute angle with the
direction of tool feed or work feed, the
chip begin
disposed of at a certain angle (less than 90
degree).
Fig: Orthogonal Cutting and Oblique Cutting
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Mechanics of Chip Formation in machining
ductile materials
During continuous machining the uncut layer of the work material just ahead of the cutting tool
(edge) is subjected to almost all sided compression as indicated in Fig.
The force exerted by the tool on the chip arises out of
the normal force, N and frictional force, F as
indicated in Fig. Due to such compression, shear
stress develops, within that compressed region, in
different magnitude, in different directions and
rapidly increases in magnitude. Whenever and
wherever the value of the shear stress reaches or
exceeds the shear strength of that work material in the
deformation region, yielding or slip takes place
resulting shear deformation in that region and the
plane of maximum shear stress.
Compression of work material (layer) ahead of the tool tip
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But the forces causing the shear stresses in the region of the chip quickly diminishes and finally disappears
while that region moves along the tool rake surface towards and then goes beyond the point of chip-tool
engagement. As a result the slip or shear stops propagating long before total separation takes place In the mean
time the succeeding portion of the chip starts undergoing compression followed by yielding and shear. This
phenomenon repeats rapidly resulting in formation and removal of chips in thin layer by layer.
This phenomenon repeats rapidly resulting in formation and
removal of chips in thin layer by layer. This phenomenon has
been explained in a simple way by Piispannen[1] using a card analogy.
Mechanism of chip formation in machining
brittle materials
• During machining, first a small crack develops at the tool tip
due to wedging action of the cutting edge. At the sharp crack-
tip stress concentration takes place.
• In case of ductile materials immediately yielding takes place at the crack-
tip and reduces the effect of stress
concentration and prevents its propagation as crack.
• In case of brittle materials the initiated crack quickly
propagates, under stressing action, and total separation
takes place from the parent work piece through the minimum resistance path.
• Machining of brittle material produces discontinuous chips
and mostly of irregular size and shape. The process of
forming such chips is schematically shown in figure.
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Development and propagation of crack causing chip separation
Schematic view of chip formation in machining brittle materials.
BUE – Built Up Edge
• In machining ductile metals like steels with long chip
tool contact length, lot of stress
and temperature develops in the secondary deformation zone at the chip-
tool interface. Under such high stress and temperature in between two
clean surfaces of metals,
strong bonding may locally take place due to adhesion similar to welding. Such
bonding will be encouraged and accelerated if the chip tool materials have mutual
affinity or solubility. The weldment starts forming as an embryo at the most
favorable location and thus gradually grows .
• With the growth of the BUE, the force, F also gradually increases due to wedging
action of the tool tip along with the BUE formed on it. Whenever the force, F
exceeds the bonding force of the BUE, the BUE is broken or sheared off
and taken away by the
flowing chip. Then again BUE starts forming and growing. This goes on repeatedl
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Characteristics of BUE
Built-up edges are characterized by its shape, size and bond strength,
which depend upon:
• work tool materials
• stress and temperature, i.e., cutting velocity and feed
• cutting fluid application governing cooling and lubrication.
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In machining ductile metals like steels with long chip-tool contact
length, lot of stress and temperature develops in the secondary
deformation zone at the chip-tool interface. Under such high stress and
temperature in between two clean surfaces of metals, strong bonding
may locally take place due to adhesion similar to welding. Such bonding
will be encouraged and accelerated if the chip tool materials have
mutual affinity or solubility. The weldment starts forming as an embryo
at the most favorable location and thus gradually grows.
Overgrowing and overflowing of BUE causing surface roughness
Formation of BUE causes several harmful effects, such
as:
• It unfavorably changes the rake angle at the tool tip causing increase
in cutting forces and power consumption
• Repeated formation and dislodgement of the BUE causes fluctuation
in cutting forces and thus induces vibration which is harmful for the
tool, job and the machine tool.
• Surface finish gets deteriorated.
• May reduce tool life by accelerating tool-wear at its rake surface by
adhesion and flaking
Types of chips and conditions for formation of those chips
Different types of chips of various shape, size, color etc. are produced by machining depending upon
Type of cut, i.e., continuous (turning, boring etc.) or intermittent cut (milling)
Work material (brittle or ductile etc.) • Cutting tool geometry (rake, cutting angles etc.)
Levels of the cutting velocity and feed (low, medium or high)
cutting fluid (type of fluid and method of application)
The basic major types of chips and the conditions generally under which such types of chips form are given below:
Discontinuous type Continuous type
• Of irregular size and shape: work material – brittle Without BUE :
like grey cast iron • work material – ductile
• Of regular size and shape: work material- ductile • Cutting velocity – high
but hard • Feed – low
• Feed – large • Rake angle – positive and large
• Tool rake – negative • Cutting fluid – both cooling and lubricating
• Cutting fluid – absent or inadequate With BUE :
• work material – ductile
• cutting velocity – medium , feed – medium or large
• cutting fluid – inadequate or absent
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Thank you
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