Chapter Three

Wireless Network
Principles

1
 Outlin
•
e
Wireless Basics
• Frequency allocation &
regulation
• Antennas
• Signal propagation
• Multiplexing
Modulation
• Media access control
• Classifications of wireless
networks
 Wireless
Transmission
Antenna
Antenn
a
Transmitte Receive
r r

• Wireless Communication systems

consist of:
– transmitters
– Antennas: radiates electromagnetic
energy into air
– Receivers
• In some cases, transmitters and
receivers are on
same device, called transceivers
(e.g., cellular
 Signa
ls
• Signals are the physical
representation of data.
• Users of a communication system
can only
exchange data through the
transmission
– Light ,electricof
,
• signals.
electromagnetic/radio
Layer 1 of the OSI basic reference
model is
responsible for the conversion of
data,
– i.e. bits, into signals and vice versa.
 Basic
Terms
• Signals, wireless or not, are
represented as
cyclic waves which may be discrete
• (digital)
Frequency or : no of cycles per unit
continuous
wav
time of the (analog).
• eAmplitude : the height of the wave
• Phase : shows how far, in degrees,
from
the its is
wave beginning
(phase 0).
Basic
terms …
 Basic
•
terms…
Hertz (Hz) = number of cycles
Frequency
per second. is measured in
• Hertz.
Data rate = number of bits sent per
second (bps).
• –Channel
One physical
= awire can support
logical multiple
communication
channel each
channels; supports one
path.
• Bandwidth
user. = frequency range used
bymeasured
a signal, in
• Hz.
Channel capacity = number of bits
transmitted
that can be per second. (same as
data rate).
 Transmission
Media
• the physical path between the
transmitter and
receiver.
– Guided: along a solid medium. ….Cables
– Unguided: achieved by using antennas.
Wireless
– Directional: point-to-point. E.g.
• Type of wireless transmission
microwave
in all
– Omni-directional: waves are
directions. equally
transmitted
 Frequency
•
allocation
Wireless communications use the
“radio
frequency (RF)” spectrum for
• transmitting andare considered while
Several factors
receiving
frequenci information.
allocating
es
– cost of components: increases as you
gofrequencie
to higher
– s.
signal losses: also increase as
frequencies increase.: lower frequencies
– Noise disruption
are disrupted
regularly by man-made noise such as
electrical
Band
chart
MF (Medium Frequency) 300-3000 kilohertz

HF (High Frequency) 3 - 30 megahertz

VHF (Very High Frequency) 30-300 megahertz

UHF (Ultra High Frequency) 300-3000 megahertz

SHF (Super High 3-30 gigahertz

Frequency)

EHF (Extremely High Anything above 30 gigahertz

Frequency)
 Wireless Frequency
• Allocation
Radio frequencies range from 9KHz to
4000GHZ (ITU)
Major frequency bands
• Microwave frequency range (1 GHz to
40 GHz)
– Directional beams possible
– Suitable for point-to-point transmission
– Used for satellite & terrestrial communications
• Broadcast frequency range(30 MHz to 1
GHz )
– Useful in for
Suitable local point-to-point multipoint
Omni-directional applications
confined within
applications
– applications : FM radio and UHF and VHF
areas.
television
 Terrestrial Microwave (1GHz to
40GHz)
• Description of common microwave
antenna
– Achieves line-of-sight transmission to
– Most common:
(relays used in Parabolic "dish", 3 m in
receiving antenna
diameter
between)
– Located at substantial heights above
–ground
Fixed rigidly
level and focuses a narrow beam
• Applications
– Long heave telecommunications service
coax) --ofrequires
(instead fiber, less repeaters but
line ofpoint-to-point
– Short sight links between buildings
circuit
(e.g, TV, LANs, bypass local telephone
closed
companies)
– Most common BW= 4GHZ (can give up to
200 Mbps)
 Satellite Microwave (1GHz to 20
GHz, typically)
• Description of communication
satellite
– Microwave relay
–station
Used to link two or more ground-based
transmitter/
microwave
receivers transmissions on one frequency
– Receives
band (uplink),
amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits
• it on
another frequency (downlink)
Applications
– Television distribution (e.g., Dstv uses
–satellites )
Long-distance telephone transmission between
exchange
telephone
offices business networks (lease channels,
– Private
expensive)
 Broadcast Radio (30 MHz to
1GHz)
• Description of broadcast radio antennas
– Omnidirectional (main differentiator from
microwave)
– Antennas not required to be dish-shaped
– Antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a
–precise
Broadcast radio&
TValignment
• VHF and part of the UHF band; 30 MHZ
to 1GHz
• Applications
• Covers
– Due to new FM apps,
radio and
theUHF and VHF range is
frequency
television
frequentl
expanded
y
 Infrared (300 GHz to
• 3000 inGHz)
operate the terribly high
frequency (THF)
used not
• does in remote control
penetrate devices (TV
walls
control, garage door
remote
openers ) used frequencies in
Commonly
Wireless Systems
– Cellular networks: Mostly around
–900 MHz
IEEE 802.11 LANs: 2.4 GHz (802.11b,
5 GHz and
802.11g)
(802.11a)
 Frequency
• Regulations
two approaches in using wireless
frequencies:
– use an unlicensed band or
– use a frequency that is regulated
• Regulated bands require
permission Bodies
Regulating
• ITU (International Telecom
Union)
– Responsible for assigning internationally used
frequencies
• Local broadcast and
agencies are also
telecommunication
responsible
 Questio
n
• Which type of frequency do you
think is
widely used(or congested) in
wireless
communication ?
• Lower frequencies or higher?
• Why?
 Relationship between
Wireless
• AFrequency
very important and Distance
relationship exists
frequency and distance covered. The
between
isCovered
relationship
d=
• Where d = distance
k/f covered, f =
frequency used,
and k = constant that depends on
• environmental
Thus, the distance covered is
proportional
factors.
inversely to the frequency
• being
This implies
used. that the higher the
shorter is the
frequency, the distance
covered
 Why lower
frequencies?
• Lower frequencies are more
congested and
highly competed for because the
distance can
be longer and the power
requirements are
lower.
 Transmitte Antenn
Amplifie
r
rs
Mixer Filter Amplifie
a

Oscilato Transmite
r r

Suppose you want to generate a signal that is sent at

900 MHz and
the original source generates a signal at 300 MHZ.
•Oscillator
•Amplifier - -strengthens
creates a carrier wavesignal
the initial of
•Mixer
600 MHz- combines original signal with oscillator and
produces 900 MHz
•Filter - selects correct frequency (Checks the standards)
Receivers perform
•Amplifier similar
- Strengthens operations
the signal before but in it
sending
reverse direction
 Antenn
• An antenna as
is an electrical conductor or
conductors
system of to send/receive RF
signals
– Transmission - radiates electromagnetic
spac into
energy
e
– Reception - collects electromagnetic energy
from
• In space communication, the same
two-way
can be used for transmission and
antenna
reception

Directional
Omnidirectional Antenna
Antenna (lower (higher
frequency) frequency)
 Antenna can be
•
described
Radiation
by:
pattern
– Graphical representation of radiation
antenn of an
properties
a
– shown as two-dimensional cross section.
• Reception pattern
• Receiving antenna’s equivalent to
radiation pattern
• Antenna gain of directionality of
– is a measure
antennas
– Higher gain …means heavily
directional
 Radiation
Antenna Types
Patterns
• Isotropic antenna (idealized)
– Radiates power equally in all directions
• Dipole antennas(real world )
– Omni-directional
• Parabolic Reflective Antenna (highly focused,
directional)
 Antennas: isotropic
radiator
• Radiation and reception of electromagnetic
waves,
coupling of wires to space for radio
transmission
and/or
• Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all
• horizontally)
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation
directions (three z
antenn
around an y z
dimensional) - only a ytheoretical reference
ideal
a
antenna x
x
is otropic
ra dia tor
• Real antennas always have directive effects
(vertically
 Antennas: simple
dipoles
•
• Real antennas
Example: are not
Radiation isotropic
pattern of a simple
radiators
Hertzian dipole
y y z

s imple
x z x dipole
s ide view (xy-plane) s ide view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)

• Gain: maximum power in the direction of

lobe
the compared to the power of an
main
isotropic radiator
 Antennas: directed and
•sectorized
Often used for microwave connections or
for stations
base mobile phones (e.g., radio coverage
y y z
of a valley)
dire cte d
x z x a nte nna

s ide view (xy-plane) s ide view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)

z
z

x
s ectorized
x a nte nna

top view, 3 s ector top view, 6 s ector

 Signal
• propagation
Transmission
– communication
range
possible
• Detection
– low error rate sender
– detection of the
range
possibl
signal trans mis s ion

– no
e distance

possibl
communication
detection

• Interference
e inte rfe re nce

– signal may not

range
bedetecte
– signal
d adds to
background
the
noise
 Propagation
Modes Si gnal

T ransmi ssi on Recei vi ng

A ntenna A ntenna
Earth
a) Ground Wave Propagation

(< 2 Ionosphere
E.g.
MHz)
submarine
AM Radio Si gnal

b) Sky Wave Propagation

Earth
(2-30 MHz)
E.g.
international
broadcasts Si gnal
c) Line- of- Sight Propagation
(>30 MHz) - Mobile, Earth
Satellite
 Summary of Wireless
Frequency Ranges,
Frequency Range Applications,
Type of Waves Typic and
al Applications Propagation

<2 MHz
Propagations
Extre me ly Low to
Medium frequencies AM radio
G round- Wave
propagation
(power and Voice Waves
Amateur radio, and
international radio
High frequency
2 MHz to 30 MHz s ervices such as BBC S ky- Wave propagation
(Broadcast radio waves )
and VOA (Voice of
Ame rica)
VHF television, FM
Ve ry high frequency Line- of- S ight
30 MHz and 300 MHz broadcast and two-way
(Broadcast radio waves ) propa ga tion
ra dio
UHF television, cellular Line- of- S ight
300 MHz to 3000 MHz Ultra high frequency
phone, wireles s LA Ns propa ga tion
S atellites , wireles s local
Super high frequency Line- of- S ight
3 to 30 GHz loops, te rre s trial
(Microwaves ) propa ga tion
micro wa ve links
Extre me ly high Wireles s local loops, Line- of- S ight
30 to 300 GHz
frequency experimental links propa ga tion
Line- of- S ight
300 GHz to 400 THz Infra re d Infrared LANs
propa ga tion
 Signal propagation
• Propagation in free space always like light
(straight line)
• In real world Receiving power influenced by
– fading (frequency dependent)
– shadowing
reflection at large
obstacles
– refraction depending on the density of a
medium
– scattering at small obstacles
– diffraction at edges

s hadowing re fle ction re fra ction s catte ring diffraction

 Signal
•
propagation
Reflection – occurs when signal
encounters
large surfaces. The surface is large
relative to
the wavelength of the signals.
• Diffraction – occurs at the edge of
an
impenetrable body that is large
compared to
the wavelength of the radio wave.
• Scattering – occurs when incoming
 Multipath
• Signal can take many different paths
between propagation
and receiver
senderdue to reflection, scattering,
diffraction multipath
LOS pulses pulses

signal at sender
signal at receiver
• Time dispersion: signal is dispersed
– interference
over time with “neighbor” symbols,
Interference
Inter Symbol
• The signal reaches a receiver directly and
(ISI)
– distorted
phase shiftedsignal depending on the phases of
parts
the different
 LOS Wireless Transmission
Impairments
• Attenuation
• Noise
• Atmospheric
absorption
• Multipath
 Attenuati
• on falls off with
Strength of signal
transmission
distance over
• medium
Attenuation factors for unguided
media:
– Received signal must have sufficient
circuitry
strength sointhat
the receiver can interpret
the signal
– Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher
be noise
than received
to without
error
– Attenuation is greater at higher
distortio causing
frequencies,
n
• Approach: amplifiers that
frequenci higher
strengthen
es
 Categories of
Noise
• Thermal
Noise
• Crosstalk
• Impulse
Noise
 Multiplexi
ng
• Goal: multiple use of a shared
medium with
minimum interference and maximum
medium
utilization
 Multiplexi
channels ki

•
ng
Multiplexing in 3 dimensions k
1 k2
k5 k6

k3 –k time
4
c

(t)
– frequency t c
t
(f)
s1
– code (c) f
s2
f
• Goal: multiple c
of a shared
use t

medium
s3
• Important: guard spaces f

needed!
 Frequency
• multiplex
Separation of the whole spectrum
frequency
into smaller
• bands
A channel gets a certain band of the
whole for the
spectrum
• time k1 k 2 k 3 k 4 k5 k6
– no dynamic
Advantages c
necessar
coordination
• E.g.
y radio station f

(same city)
• Disadvantages
– waste of
if the traffic
bandwidth
distribute
is
unevenl
d
– y
t
inflexible
 Time
• multiplex
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain
time of
amount

•
– only one carrier in
Advantages k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
medium at any
the
– throughput
time high
for many
even c
users f

•
– precise
Disadvantage
synchronizati
s on
necessary
t
 Time and frequency
• multiplex
Combination of both
• A channel gets a certain frequency band
methods
foramount of
a certain
• time
Example:
GSM
k k k k k5 k6
• 1 2 3 4

– better protection
Advantages c
tappin
against f
– protection
g against
selective
frequency
• but: precise
interference
require
coordination t
d
 Code
multiplex k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

• Each channel has a

c
• All channels
unique code use the same
at the same
spectrum
• time
– bandwidth
Advantages
– no coordination and
efficient
necessar f
synchronization
– good
y protection against
and
interference
• Disadvantages
tapping
– varying user data t
rates
• Implemented
– more complexusing spread spectrum
technology
 Problem of multiple
• propagation
multi-path propagation effects occur
as a
result of transmitted signals being
reflected
off objects (buildings, bridges, signs,
cars,
etc.) before they reach the receiver.
• Extreme variability in received
signal
strength (fading) and arrival time,
delays and
 Doppler
•
Effe c t
Christian Doppler (1803-
1853),
• Doppler effect represents the shifts in
the
frequency of electromagnetic radiation
emitted
by a moving object.
• Consider, for example, a police car
approaching
you. The pitch of the siren changes as
the vehicle
approaches you and then goes away
Doppler
Effe c t
 Error Control
• Mechanisms to detect and correct
transmission
• Types of errors
errors:
– Lost PDU : a PDU fails to arrive
– Damaged PDU : PDU arrives with errors
• Positive acknowledgement
– Destination returns acknowledgment of received,
error-free
PDUs
• Error detection
– Receiver detects errors and discards PDUs
• Retransmission after timeout(Lost PDU )
– Source retransmits unacknowledged PDU
• Negative acknowledgement and
retransmission(Damaged
 Data Transmission Errors
• Error detection
codes
• Detects the presence of an error
– Automatic repeat request (ARQ)
protocols
• Transmitter retransmits
Block of data with error that block
is discarded
• of data
Error correction codes, or forward
correction
codes (FEC)
– Designed to detect and correct
errors
 Error Detection
•
Process
Transmitter
– For a given frame, an error-detecting code
is calculated
(check bits) from
data bits
– Check bits are appended to
data bits
• Receiver
– Separates incoming frame into data bits and
check bits
Calculates calculated
– Compares check bits check
from received data bits
bits against
bits
received check
– Detected error occurs if
mismatch
 Wireless Transmission
• Errors
Error detection leads to
retransmission
• Detection and retransmission is
for wireless
inadequate
applications
– High error rate in wireless , results
innumber
a large of
retransmissions
– Error might occur in the
retransmission
– Retransmissions will make it
slower
• Best to correct errors by
using
– Block Error Correction
Part 2 ---next class

50
Communication in
wireless
• Analog
systems
communication
– receive/generate analogy signal and use
to handle
amplifiers
attenuation.
– amplifier do not know the content ,they
whatever is received, including
amplify
the noise.
• Digital
Communication
– received/generate digital signal and
uses
repeaters ,over long distances to
recover theare used to filter the
– Repeaters
patterns of 1’s and 0’s
noise.
 Why digital is
•
better ???
more strong and free of noise because
it to detect 1’s and 0’s even in distorted
is easier
• messages.
Repeaters reduce additive
• especially suitable for computer
noise.
networks because
data bits can be directly fed into a
communication
medium without any
modulation/demodulation.
• The encryption/decryption
Digital communications areon analog
more secure
sophisticate
because
data is not
digital data streams can be scrambled
d.
(encrypted)
 Signal
encoding
• Data must be encoded into signals
that carry
the data .
•
• Data can
Signals bealso
can digital
be or
theanalog
digital
or analog. technique are used
• Different
based on the
format of data (analog or digital)
and the
encoded signal (analog or digital).
 Encodings….
• Analog data, analog signal: One of
the oldest
techniques, used in early days of
telephone
systems. Easy
• Digital data, analog signal: In use
since the
dawn of computer communications in
the
1960s, this technique is still used by
• modems
Analog data,
to digital signal:
voice
toand
transmit
Used other analog
computer
transmit datadata
overover
dial-up
lines.
digital circuits.
Signal encoding
schemes
Analog Data to Analog Signal
Encoding
• Amplitude Modulation (AM) the
amplitude
of the data signal is modified by the
carrier
signal.
• Frequency Modulation (FM) is
used to Modulation (PM) is used
• Phase
torepresent
different
represent different
data data
signals signals
with with
different
different
phases.
frequencies.
Digital Data to Analog Signal
Encoding: Modem
s Keying (ASK), where
• Amplitude-shift
the 0 and 1 bits
are represented by the height of the
amplitude.
• This technique is quite simple but is
susceptible
system to
sudden
s. gain changes due to noise and
attenuation.
• For this reason, it is not heavily used in
wireless
Digital Data to Analog Signal
Encoding
• Frequency-shift Keying (FSK), where
the 0 and 1 bits
are represented by two different
frequencies, say
• 1000
FSK iscycles per secondto
less susceptible and 2000
errors cycles
than ASK
per
and second,
forishigh-frequency
used (3 to 30 MHz) radio
respectively.
transmissions.
 Digital Data to Analog Signal
Encoding
• Phase-shift Keying (PSK), where a
certain phase
(e.g., 180) is used to represent bit 0, and a
change to
bit 1 is indicated whenever the phase of
the signal
changes.
wireless systems use PSK and its
• variants.
PSK is also less error-prone.
• PSK uses bandwidth more efficiently. Thus
many
 Questio
n
• From a performance point of view,
compare ASK,FSK,PSK?
• Which one is
better?
• From a performance point of view,
• ASK is more susceptible to noise
than
MFSKFSK or
• systems.
As compared to PSK, FSK systems
use more
bandwidth because more
• frequencies are
Thus, PSK techniques are used
needed to
more often. carry more bits.
 Signal Encoding
(Modulation)
• Modulation of digital
signals
– When only analog transmission
facilities are
available, digital to analog conversion
required
– A higher frequency may be needed for
• Modulation
effective of analog signals
transmission
– PCM and variants used frequently
Analog data,
digital signal

• Pulse Code
Modulation
• Delta Modulation
 Pulse Code
• Modulation
Based on the sampling theorem (sample
be should
rate higher than twice highest
• frequency)
After sampling each sample will be
quantize
uniformly
• d.
Each analog sample(quanta) is
code a binary
assigned
– Analog samples are referred to as pulse
modulation (PAM)
amplitude
• The digital signal consists of block of n
samples
each
bits, n-bit number is the amplitude of a
where
PCM pulse
 Pulse Code
Modulation

Amplitud
e

Sample
s
This shows 12 samples, each sample represents the amplitude of
the wave. These
samples as sent as digital data and then reconstructed into the
original signal on the
receiving side.
 Delta
Modulation
• Analog input is approximated by
functio
staircase
n– Moves up or down by one quantization
level
each() at
sampling
interval
• The bit stream approximates
derivative of
analog signal (rather than
amplitude)
– 1 is generated if function goes up
– 0 otherwise
 Delta
Modulation
Analog
Signal

Signa Staircas
l e
Amplitud
e Function

Time
 Signal Encoding
• Evaluation
What determines how successful a
receiver will be in
interpreting an incoming signal?
• The following areratio
– Signal-to-noise the key criteria:
(SNR): An increase in
SNR decreases bit
error rate, thus a higher SNR is good for better
reception.
thus higher data rates are not good for
reception.
–– Data rate: An
Bandwidth: Anincrease
increaseinindata rate increases
bandwidth bit
allows an
error rate,
increase in
data rate, thus it also leads to higher data rates
and lower
quality of reception.
 Signal Encoding
• Evaluation…
The main factors used to compare
schemes
different encoding
• are:
How well it performs in the presence of
attenuatio
noise and
– For example, amplitude modulation is more
n.
noise thanto
susceptible
• How much bandwidth it
others.
– For example, frequency modulation
consumes.
bandwidth
consumes than
more
• How much does it
others.
– The higher the signal rate and the
cost?
encoding of
complexity scheme,
the the greater
the cost.
 Spread
•
Spectrum
Was developed for military and
intelligence (wwII)
• Idea is to spread the message over a
range of signals
to makebased
signals it jamonresistant.
secret scheme.
• Different
– Receiver data
must bits
knoware
thetransmitted
scheme(code)over
to
signal
different
understand the
.
– This make it secured and
loud
• But it consumes more
bandwidth.
 Types of spread
spectrum

• Frequency hopping Spread

Spectrum(FHSS)
• Direct-Sequence Spread
Spectrum(DSSS)
 Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum
frequenci
(FHSS)
• Signal is broadcast over seemingly random
series of radio
• es
Signal hops from frequency to frequency at
fixed intervals
• Channel
– What bitsequence
on what Based on spreading code
frequency hopping between frequencies in
• Receiver,
with transmitter, picks up
synchronization
• message
Advantages
– Almost impossible to
–intercept
Attempts to jam signal on one frequency succeed only
at out a few
knocking
bits in Bluetooth
• Used
communication .
Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS)
Energ
y Data
4 7 5 1 6 8 3 Bits
2

Frequenc
y
f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7
f8
 Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum
• (DSSS)
Each bit in original signal is represented
by multiple
bits in the transmitted signal
– bit pattern is called a chip (or chipping code)
• Spreading code spreads signal across a
wider
frequency band
– Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits
• used
DSSS is used in Code Division
• Good to
(CDMA),
Multiple recover
a data
popular
Access with out
standard for
retransmission.
cellular phones
• Wireless Ethernet LAN uses DSSS as
 Multiple Access
sharedTechniques
• MAC is important for enabling successful network
operation -inmedium
all
networks
• The primary job of a MAC protocol is to arbitrate
medium
access to a/shared
channel in order to avoid collision and at
the same time
• Fairly and efficiently share the bandwidth resources
nodesmultiple
among
.
• MAC protocols can be typically classified into two
broad categories:

1. Contention based
2. Contention
free
 Contention-Based MAC
Protocols
• All nodes share a common medium and
contend for the
• medium for transmission,
ALOHA (Additive Link On -collision maySystem)
Line Hawaii occur
during
and CSMAthe
contention.
are the most typical examples of contention -
based MAC
• protocols
In Pure ALOHA, a node simply transmits
whenever it has a
packet to send. In the event of a collision, the
collided
packet is discarded. The sender just waits a
• random periodthe problem is that the channel
In Pure Aloha
of
onlytime and
efficiency is then transmits the packet again.
10%
 Cont.
discrete
…
• In Slotted ALOHA, time is divided into

timeslots. Each node is allocated a timeslot.

A node is
not allowed to transmit until the beginning of
the next
timeslot.
• Slotted ALOHA can double the channel
efficiency.
However, it requires global time
synchronization, which
• complicates
CSMA cannot handle
the theimplementation.
system hidden - terminal
• multi-hop
CSMAin
problem wireless
differs from ALOHA in that it uses
networks
carrier sense;
that is, it allows a node to listen to the
shared medium
• In CSMA/CA, a handshake
mechanism is
introduced between a sender and a
• receiver
MACA: (4 WAY HAND SHAKE)
(3
RTS –way).
D ATA - –
CTS
• ACK
MACAW (5 WAY HAND SHAKE)
RTS – CTS –
D ATA – ACK – DS & RRTS
 Contention-Free MAC
• A Protocols
shared medium is divided into number of sub
terms ofintime, frequency, orthogonal pseudo
channels
noise codes.
• These sub channels are allocated to individual
eachwith
nodes node occupying one sub
channel.
• This allows different nodes to access the
shared medium
without interfering with each other and thus
• effectively
Examples of Contention-Free MAC
avoids
– TDMAcollision from different nodes.
Protocols
– FDMA
– CDMA
 MACA - Collision Avoidance

 MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) uses short

signaling packets for collision avoidance
 RTS (request to send): a sender request the right to send from
a receiver with a short RTS packet before it sends a data packet
 CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right to send as
soon as it is ready to receive
 Signaling packets contain
 sender address, receiver address, packet size
 Variants of this method can be found in IEEE802.11 as DFWMAC
(Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC)
 MACA Protocol solved hidden and exposed terminal problems:
 Sender broadcasts a Request-to-Send (RTS) and the intended
receiver sends a Clear-to-Send (CTS).
 Upon receipt of a CTS, the sender begins transmission of the
frame.
 RTS, CTS helps determine who else is in range or busy (Collision
Avoidance).
 Wireless Networks

Wireless MANs Wireless WANs

Wireless LANs

Wi rel ess Cel l ul ar Satel l i te Pagi ng

Personal B usi ness L ocal L oops Networks Systems Networks
A rea LA Ns (Fixed Wireless)
Networks

Ex ampl e1: Ex ampl e1: Ex ampl e1: Ex ampl e1: Ex ampl e1: Ex ampl e1
B l uetooth 802.11b L MDS GSM, 9.6 Kbps, Motorola FLEX ,
1 Mbps, 11 Mbps, 37 Mbps, wide coverage Iri di um
100 Meters 1.2 Kbps
10 Meters 2-4 Km up to 64 Mbps
Ex ampl e2: gl obal l y
Other examples: Other Ex ampl e2: 3G, 2 Mbps, Ex ampl e2
wireless sensor ex ampl es: FSO wide coverage Example 2: ReFLEX ,
networks, UWB 802.11g, 1.25 Gbps Deep space 6.4K bps
Hi perLA N2 1-2 KM communi cati on