MANUFACTURING

[Link] EXCELLENCE
 TOTAL QUALITY
[Link] ASSURANCE
OVERVIEW
■ Module Production
■ Module Process
■ Module Quality

3
 Module Production Line
Laminate
Visual Final Visual
Glass Loading EL Tester RFID labelling
Inspection Inspection

Auto Sorting &

EVA Cutting Framing Final EL Test
Trimming Binning

JB Fixing &
Stringing Laminator Sun Simulator Packing
Soldering

Manual
EL Tester JB potting HI pot Testing Shipping
Bussing

Pre-Lam
Layup Visual Curing Buffing
Inspection
MODULE PRODUCTION
A PV module consists of individual solar cells electrically
connected together to increase their power output. They are
packaged so that they are protected from the environment and
so that the user is protected from electrical shock.

Module lifetimes and warranties on bulk silicon PV modules are

over 20 years, indicating the robustness of an encapsulated PV
module.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
GLASS LOADER
 High transmission of light in the wavelength range of 350nm to 1200 nm.

 A Tempered glass is used to provide strength to solar cells and

protect them from dust, water, etc.

 Anti Reflective Coating on glass

ETHYL VINYL ACETATE [EVA]
 It is used to provide adhesion between solar cells, the top surface and rear surface.

 Encapsulant should be stable at elevated temperatures and high UV exposure.

 It should also be optically transparent and should have a low thermal resistance.

 EVA (ethyl vinyl acetate) is the most commonly used encapsulant material.

 EVA comes in thin sheets which are inserted between the solar cells and the top surface
and the rear surface.
SOLAR TABBER AND STRINGER
 The first phase in a photovoltaic module manufacturing line is joining the solar cells, which
is done by a solar tabber and stringer machine.

 In a PV module, a number of individual solar cells are electrically connected to increase

their power output.
 Ribbons are automatically cut as per the cell specifications.

 Tin coated copper ribbons are used to connect cells in series. Tin coated copper is used
because it has good solderability property.
 Here 12 cells are connected in series as battery is connected in series, positive terminal
with negative .
STRINGER
 12 cells are connected in series and such 6 sets are made then all the 6 sets are connected
in series at bussing and soldered manually using twizzer.

 Stringer machines are from Team Technik and ATW.

 To synchronize line cycle time and increase throughput modules go to buffer, which works
on LIFO system and buffer have capacity up to 12-15 modules.
STRINGER PROCESS
 First solar cells are loaded in stringer machine then these cells are transferred to main conveyor belt.

 Before transferring, the cells passes through a camera which detects defects, if any it rejects the cells.

 Cells on conveyor passes through heating zones present in stringer where contactless IR soldering
takes place without generating any stress in the cell.

 Here Flux is added to avoid dry soldering. Flux dispensing onto the busbar without contact with the
cell.

 There are three heating zones :-

1. Pre heating zone
2. Main heating zone
3. Post heating zone

 In Main heating zone soldering between cell busbar and solar ribbon take place by IR technology.

 In post heating zone temperature is reduced before cell comes at room temperature.
 BUSSING STATION
 In order to create an electrical circuit, after positioning all strings composing the module on the
glass, you proceed with the soldering of the bus ribbon which is of larger thickness than the ribbon
being used for interconnecting the strings.

 At this station operator connects solar ribbon of cell strings in series with interconnector wire
by auto soldering process.

 ‘L’ & ‘C’ shaped interconnector are used to connect strings in series.

 If soldering is not done properly it may result in CTM loss and can
also result in short circuit.

 The difference in the efficiency (or power output) between cells and
modules is described by a parameter called the “Cell-to-Module (CTM)
ratio”.
LAYUP OF MODULE
 In this logo and barcode are placed over the cell matrix which is manufactured.

 After this on the backside of the cell matrix EVA and backsheet are placed.

 The key characteristics of the rear surface of the PV module are that it must have low thermal
resistance and that it must prevent the ingress of water or water vapour.

 The most common shared module lay-ups is tempered glass as the transparent top layer; followed by a
layer of encapsulant; the interconnected solar cells; another layer of encapsulant and finally a layer of
U.V. stable film as the bottom layer.
PRE LAMINATION VISUAL INSPECTION
 In this process an operator manually checks the front side of module in a mirror.

 He checks for string misalignment, poor soldering and visual cracks in the module.

 If no defects the module is sent to next stage otherwise it is sent back for rework.
PRE LAMINATOR EL TESTER
 An electroluminescence tester is a machine which can identify cell breakage, surface cracks
and fissures that can't be identified by visual or naked eye inspection.

 Electroluminescence shares the same concept as the LED ( light emitting diode).

 EL test checks for ;-

 Various micro-cracks incl. single cracks, branched cracks, cell piercing cracks, cross cracks and
more
 Short circuited cells
 Solder faults
 Finger breaks
 Inactive cell areas
 Wafer defects, incl. impurities, dark edges, striation rings, black cores
 Non-homogeneity and foreign matter in the crystalline silicone
PRE LAMINATION EL TESTER
 This method makes visible the current distribution in the PV module (PV cell) and
eventual inhomogeneities and local defects.

 In the electroluminescence image we can see dark and light areas.

LAMINATION
 Solar panel lamination ensures the longevity of the solar cells of a module as they need to be able
to withstand outdoor exposure in all types of climate for periods of 25 years and more.

 The lamination process encapsulates solar cells in between a number of substrate layers including
top and bottom protective layers. These layers are known as a “lay-up”.

 It consists of 4 processes namely:

• Heating up on pin (Jinchen)
• Heating up on plate
• Polymerization process
• Cooling of laminate(chiller)
LAMINATION
 Heating on pin
1. Holds module initially before keeping module on platen which is at 150 C.
2. Jinchen Laminator has pin system while Meyer burger(MB) has platen system.

 Polymerization (pumping):
• The lamination process involves pumping the air out of the module layers in a vacuum chamber
• EVA heating takes place and it melts in semi liquid.
• As soon as EVA melts into liquid it produces few fumes which is extracted using vacuum.
• If vacuum is not properly done then air stays within it which me create bubble or chances of delamination.

 There is a silicone diaphragm which is used to pressure module uniformly.

1. Slow
2. Medium
3. Fast

 Cooling :
• Cools down the module at room temperature.
Buffer

Auto Trimming

Post Lamination EL & Visual Test

Auto Framing & Buffing

Junction Box Fixing and Soldering

Junction Box Potting

Curing Station

Final Visual Inspection

Hi-Pot Testing

Sun Simulator

RFID Tagging

Sorting & Binning

 Buffer

It synchronizes cycle time and increases throughput.

It is used when the downstream flow is slower.

Capacity: 12-15 modules

 Auto Trimming

It removes excess material from the edges after lamination.

Done with the help of a hot-knife

Results into smooth glass edges, ready for frame fitting.

Post Lamination EL & Visual
Test
EL test checks presence of micro cracks, if any.

Visual test checks for a any visible irregularity.

 Auto Framing & Buffing

Frame provides protection, helps in mounting and grounding.

35mm Al frame is used, anodized with Aluminum Oxide.

Edges of frame are buffed to give a smoother finish.

Junction Box Fixing & Soldering

Silicon sealant lining on JB by an automatic dispenser.

JB is fixed on back sheet.

Electrical connections of panel are soldered with JB.

 Junction Box Potting

JB is filled with silicon sealant.

Potting safeguards the circuit connections.

 Curing Station

The sealant is cured for 6-8 hours.

At a time approx. 625 modules are in curing station.

Final Visual Inspection

For checking any visual defects during framing process.

Checking done on basis of specific criteria.

 Hi-Pot
Testing
It is done for checking leakage current.

Done by applying high voltage after shorting end terminals.

 Sun Simulator

It involves electrical testing of the modules.

It calculates various electrical parameters, needed for

sorting.

Rating label is pasted on the back of module.

 RFID
Tagging
RFID tag helps in identifying.

Stores data from sun simulator test, BOM details and

certifications.
 Sorting & Binning

Modules are sorted as Good or Not Good.

Binning of modules is done with cluster of 5 watt steps.

Process Engineer Responsibilities
“Process engineers are responsible for the design, implementation, control, and optimisation of industrial processes.”

• Meeting with production managers to assess existing processes.

• Providing the Product Manager with process documents and standard operating procedures (SOP).
• Developing routines and best practices to ensure product quality.
• To ensure repeatability of the process.
• Performing optimization tests.
• Performing risk assessments.
• Drafting process ideas to reduce costs and improve production rates.
• Designing and testing process upgrades and new process systems.
• Performing process simulations and troubleshooting issues.
• Developing standardized operating instructions for the upgrades process.
• Monitoring upgrades systems.
• Ensuring processes comply with safety and quality standards.
Components of Solar cell
Desired Properties of Components
1. Glass
Function - The front glass sheet protects the PV cells from the weather and
impact from debris.
• Strength - tempered glass
• Safety - Impact tempered glass (shatters into tiny fragments)
• High solar radiance transmittance - low iron oxide content
• Anti-Reflective Coating (ARC) – reduce reflectivity thus increases power
generation by over 2.5 %
• Durability - Stable under long exposure to UV light Broken tempered glass

• Rough internal surface for proper lamination

Conventional glass (left) vs ARC glass

2. Encapsulant (EVA - ethyl vinyl acetate)
Function - Encapsulation aims at protecting the solar cell from
environmental degradation and helps in adhesion.
Lamination is Bottleneck in (c-Si) PV Module Fabrication
• Maximum optical transmission
• Minimum curing time
• Excellent durability - High resistance to UV- induced discolouration and
delamination
• High dielectric breakdown - Retention of electrical insulation to protect
against electrical breakdown, arcing
• High adhesive bonding to solar glass and back-sheet
• Preventing moisture and dirt penetrating
• Prevents corrosion of electric contacts
• Protects Solar Cells by helping to soften shocks and vibrations
• Should be Easy to cut
UV- induced browning/discolouration
 3. PV Solar Cell
Function - Cells are the main component and have the function to capture the
sunlight and convert it into electricity.
• Sorting of solar cells is a vital step to achieve the predetermined power out
of the photovoltaic module.
• During operation, the efficiency of PV cells is reduced by the dissipation of Equivalent Circuit of a PV Cell
power across internal resistances. These parasitic resistances can be
demonstrated as a shunt resistance (RSH) and series resistance (RS).
• Shunt Resistance (RSH) - Low shunt resistance causes power losses in solar
cells by providing an alternate current path for the light-generated current.
Such a diversion reduces the amount of current flowing through the solar
cell junction and reduces the voltage from the solar cell. It should be high.
• Series Resistance (RS) - The contributions to the series resistance come from
the bulk resistance of the junction, the contact resistance between the
junction and ribbon, the resistance of the ribbon. It should be low.
4. Ribbons
Function - Bussing ribbons employed in the photovoltaic panels are a part of
the arrangement for collecting energy from the cell and conveying it over to
junction box.
• The bus bars are soldered with ribbon conductors.
• Made of Hot dip tinned copper conductor
• Low resistance and good conductivity
• Good Solderability
• Low cost
• Good reflectivity which mitigate the shading effect of the conductors to
some extent.
• Sufficient Elongation - Continuous temperature fluctuations during the
lifetime of solar panel put solder joints to the test for the duration of the
panel lifespan PV ribbon breakages may occur due to stretching/tension
along the ribbons
5. Backsheet
Function - The backsheet is the rear most layer of common solar panels which as acts as a moisture barrier
and final external skin to provide both mechanical protection and electrical insulation.
• Protect and shield the backside of PV cells from weather, moisture and UV rays
• Guarding cells as an electrical insulator
• White in colour
• Good mechanical strength
• Easy to cut
• High resistance to Cracking and delamination
• Partly breathable
• Three layers –
1. Weather resistant outer layer
2. Core layer which is electrically insulating
3. Adhesive inner layer
• Q
6. Frame
Function – Frame is made of aluminium and has the function to ensure robustness & practical and safe coupling to the
photovoltaic module.
• Corrosion and Abrasion Resistant - Deep anodized (15 micron thickness) aluminium alloy frame (T6 6063 alloy)
• The frame structure should be free of projections which could result in the lodgement of water, dust or other matter.

• Excellent durability
• Ease and speed of assembly (snap-together construction
with tight fitting joints)
• Lightweight, stiff and able to withstand extreme stress and
loading from high wind and external forces.
• Strength to withstand the dead and live loads
• Economical and Cost effective
• Earthing of Module should be done while installation
• With mounting holes, ground mark and drain holes
• Environment friendly (recyclable)
7. Edge Sealant
Function - It helps in delaying moisture ingress, which protects
cells & connections from corrosion and degradation.
• Silicone (polysiloxane) is a polymer which is used as edge sealant
• Very low MVTR (moisture vapor transmission rate)
• Reliable bonding throughout a range of temperatures and
conditions
• UV temperature degradation resistance
• Good adhesion properties.
• Impact resistance
• excellent gap-filling and fluidity
• Good dielectric properties
• Good thermal conductivity
• Less Curing time
8. Junction Box
Function - The junction box has the function of bringing the electrical connections of the
PV module outside.
• Contains the protection diodes for shadows and the cables for the connection of the
panels in the field
• The function of the diodes is to keep the power flow going in one direction, and prevent
power from feeding back into the panels when there's no sunshine.
• A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel with silicon adhesive. It
wires the (usually) 4 connectors together and is the output interface of the solar panel.
• Excellent thermal stability and Reliable long-term safety
• MC4 / MC5 connectors at the end are used
• MM - Manufacturer Multi-Contact & 4 for the 4 mm diameter contact pin
• MC4s allow strings of panels to be easily constructed by pushing the connectors from
adjacent panels together by hand, but require a tool to disconnect them to ensure they
do not accidentally disconnect when the cables are pulled.
9. By Pass Diode
Function – To minimize the effects of partial shading on cells.
• If a single cell (or a group of cells) is shaded, it will become reverse-
biased, not generating power any longer, but becoming a power
sink that dissipates the power generated by the other cells of the
string. The same effect will take place, if one of the cells is partially
or fully damaged.
• This will result for the shaded cell in local overheating (“hot-spots”). Temperatures ≥100 °C, depending on weather
conditions and the number of cells in a string, can be reached and, in turn, lead to destructive effects (e.g.
encapsulant browning, backsheet and glass cracking, loss of adhesion, etc).
• Ideally, each cell should be protected by a by-pass diode. In practice, for cost reasons and to avoid over-complexity
in manufacturing, commercial modules generally make use of three by-pass diodes.
• For a typical module with 72 cells in series, each by-pass diode protects three sub-strings made of 24 cells each.
• If a single cell is completely shadowed, the entire sub-string of the cell will be by-passed and the overall module
power will be reduced by 1/3 and not entirely.
Solar Array Parameters
• Isc - The maximum current provided by the PV array when the output connectors are shorted together (a short
circuit condition). Isc varies linearly with light intensity, the angle at which the light falls on the cell and area of cell
exposed to light.
• Voc - This is the maximum voltage that the array provides when the terminals are not connected to any load (an
open circuit condition). This value depends upon the number of PV panels connected together in series.
• Pmax - This relates to the point where the power supplied by the array that is connected to the load (batteries,
inverters) is at its maximum value, where Pmax = Impp x Vmpp
• Impp & Vmpp - The current and voltage at which maximum power occurs.
• FF - The FF is defined as the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc.
Graphically, the FF is a measure of the "squareness" of the solar cell and is also the area of the largest rectangle
which will fit in the IV curve. This fill factor value gives an idea of the quality of the array.
• Efficiency (η) - Efficiency is the ratio of the electrical power output Pmax, compared to the solar power input, Pin,
into the PV cell.
I-V curve
An I-V curve (current-voltage characteristic curve), is a
graphical representation of the relationship between
the voltage applied across an electrical device and the
current flowing through it.

The FF is a measure of the "squareness" of the solar

cell and is also the area of the largest rectangle which
will fit in the IV curve.
The maximum FF is achieved with:
Rs=zero,
Rsh= infinity,
and the ideality factor=1, (The ideality factor of a cell is
a measure of how closely the diode follows the ideal
diode equation.)
Effect of Shunt resistance on I-V curve
The shunt resistance has a greater effect on cell
performance at low light intensity.
As the light intensity decreases, the bias point
and current through the solar cell also decreases,
and the equivalent resistance of the solar cell
may begin to approach the shunt resistance.
When these two resistances are similar, the
fraction of the total current flowing through the
shunt resistance increases, thereby increasing the
fractional power loss due to shunt resistance.
Effect of Series resistance on I-V curve
Losses caused by series resistance are in a
first approximation given by Ploss=VRsI=I2RS
, and increase quadratically with (photo-)
current.

Series resistance losses are therefore most

important at high illumination intensities,
where current generation is high.
What is Quality?
Quality means freedom from service errors that requires doing work over again
(rework) or that result in service failures, customer complaints, customer claims,
and ends into customer dissatisfaction.

• Fit for need

• Customer Satisfaction
• Price
Why Quality is Important?
• Quality is Critical to Satisfied Customers and it build trust
• To meet Customer Expectations
• Establish Your Reputation
• Meet or Exceed Industry Standards
• Manage Costs Effectively
• Stay in market
• Satisfy stakeholders and interest parties
• It fuels recommendations
• Fewer returns and replacements lead to reduced costs
Quality Engineer Responsibilities
• Developing and implementing quality standards.
• Developing and implementing quality control systems.
• Monitoring and analysing quality performance.
• Inspecting and testing materials, equipment, processes, and products to ensure quality
specifications are met.
• Collaborating with operations managers to develop and implement controls and improvements.
• Ensuring that workflows, processes, and products comply with safety regulations.
• Investigating and troubleshooting product or production issues.
• Developing corrective actions, solutions, and improvements.
• Reviewing codes, specifications, and processes.