Chapter 9.

a. Family, Household, Marriage

b. Types and forms of family
c. Lineage and Descent
d. Patriarchy and Sexual Division of Labour
e. Contemporary Trends
A. Family, Household,
Marriage
A. FAMILY, HOUSEHOLD, MARRIAGE

 Family- Group in which both relations of affinity and

consanguinity ( adoption) are found
 The family as an institution of society contains both

affinitive and consanguine relations. It is universal in

society, but due to the large number of variations an
exhaustive definition is not possible.
 GP MURDOCH - Elementary family was found
everywhere (studied 250 societies)
 Characteristics of Family-

1. Common residence
2. Economic coordination
3. Sexual reproduction
4. Socially approved sexual relations b/w adults of both
sexes
5. Children born to adults or adopted
 Anthony Giddens –
 Gives simplified definition of family
 As a group of person directly linked by kin

connection, adult members of which

assume responsibility of caring of children.
 He emphasizes on criterion of commitment

over and above traditional features of

family.
Functions of Family:
 George Murdock identified 3 traditional functions of the family:
 Sexual gratification and socially approved reproduction.
 Economic cooperation.
 Education.
 Parsons said that family has two indispensable functions:
 Primary socialization.
 Adult personality stabilization.
 Family is the only place in the industrial society where individual is
valued intrinsically.
 Relations are emotionally gratifying and this leads to adult
personality stabilization.
 Engels in his Origins of Family, Private Property
and State said that:
 Family comes with private property (which is
controlled by men).
 To transfer wealth to the next generation,
paternity confidence needed.
 Marriage develops as a means to control
women’s sexuality and labour.
 Women do unlimited work in the family.
Capitalists get free labour.
 Keeps the male breadwinner more docile as he
cannot risk his wife and child.
 The wife also acts as an emotional sponge for the
frustrated/alienated man, thereby reducing his
revolutionary tendencies and the capitalist rests
secure.
 Individual perspective –
 Physical security (childhood)
 Emotional/psychological security
 Economic security
 Legitimate means of sexual gratification
 Entertainment
 Gives readymade status
 Initial socialization
Critique of Family:
 Critique of Murdock.
 With the advent of public education, education is now no longer the sole purview of the family except for

primary socialisation.
 Peter Wilmott says economic cooperation has been reduced to consumption, the role of family as a producer

is on the decline with the decline of the agricultural economy.

 Wells & Vogel found that emotionally disturbed children were victims of family. The children were scapegoated

by parents for their own troubles. Functional for the parents and dysfunctional for the kids.
 RD Laing: often family is a place of politics. It becomes a gangland/factional feud place and the victims are

children.
 Jessie Bernard said that Parsons’ adult personality stabilisation is nothing but male personality

stabilisation. She conducted a study to show that:

 psychic disorders increased in women post marriage and decreased in men.
 Also men’s career jumped after marriage, while women’s took a step back.
 Family is often accused to be status quoist For ex Karl
Marx argues that family assures conformity of the
individual, thereby, submitting to the exploitation of
haves.
 David Cooper in his book ‘death of family’ consider it as
ideological conditioning device in exploitative society
 Family is accused of producing psychological disorders in
children ex: RD Laing in his book ‘politics of family’
studies schizophrenic children and concludes it is due to
expectations of the parents
 Family produces emotional stress in the members
leading to conflicts within family.
 Edmond Leach in his book ‘A runaway world?’ concludes
that the members expect too much of each other.
Dysfunctions of Family:
 Exploitation of Women: The family often legitimizes the
exploitation of women, such as by overlooking their
household work and accepting or ignoring sexual abuse.
 Domestic Violence: Domestic violence is often
sanctioned within the family, with incidents frequently
being ignored or accepted. For example, Murray Strauss
argues that marriage can be seen as a "license to hit."
 Justifying Deviant Acts: The family can be used to
justify unethical behavior, such as corruption.
 Limiting Individual Creativity: The family might hinder
an individual's creativity by forcing them to suppress their
personal desires to conform to family expectations.
Contemporary Trends in
Family
 Contemporary Trends (overall)
 Marriage losing appeal
 Diversity in family forms growing
 Rising divorces/separation/
 Sanctity of marriage declining
 Law has made divorce easy
 Stigma of divorce vanishing
 Giddens- ‘Forever love’ changing into ‘love

till further notice’ (‘plastic love’)

 Frederic Leplay - Uses the term unstable for
working class family
 Contemporary Trends - (India)
 Marriage still important
 Major event in life
 Caste active – Technology re-inforcing
 Class becoming important as well
 Urban areas – Rise of live-in
 Rise of divorce rate in IT professionals
 Joint Family has Sentimental value
 Girl’s choice is increasingly getting
considered
 Male still seen as major, important bread

winner
 Role of elderly getting confined to only

rituals
 Rise of Filiocentric approach
New Development-
 Reconstituted Family - (spouses live with
children of previous as well as current
marriage)
 Single parent –
 Live in
 Dual career
 Single parent, homosexual, commune living,

live in)
HOUSEHOLD-
 A household includes all the persons who occupy a housing unit. A

housing unit is a house, an apartment, a mobile home, a group of

rooms, or a single room that is occupied (or if vacant, is intended

for occupancy) as separate living quarters.

 Separate living quarters are those in which the occupants live and eat

separately from any other persons in the building and which have direct

access from the outside of the building or through a common hall. The

occupants may be a single family, one person living alone, two or more

families living together, or any other group of related or unrelated persons

who share living arrangements.

 Therefore, Household study important.
 Dimension of study should be household

based on : -
 - Commensal
 - Co-resident
 - Coparcenary
 - Co rituals (did field study).
 Two types of household 1) Simple 2)

compound (2 or more parents).

 In sociology ‘household work strategy’, a
term coined by Ray Pahl, is the division of
labour between members of a household,
whether implicit or the result of explicit
decision–making, with the alternatives
weighed up in a simplified type of cost-
benefit analysis. It is a plan for the relative
deployment of household members’ tied
between the three domains of employment:
◦ In the market economy, including home-based self-
employment second jobs, in order to obtain money to buy
goods and services in the market;
◦ Domestic production work, such as cultivating a vegetable
patch or raising chickens, purely to supply food to the
household; and
◦ Domestic consumption work to provide goods and services
directly within the household, such as cooking meals, child–
care, household repairs, or the manufacture of clothes and
gifts. Household work strategies may vary over the life-cycle,
as household members age, or with the economic
environment; they may be imposed by one person or be
decided collectively.
 Pauline Kolenda- After modernity, joint households and
joint families still exist.
 No conclusion unlike Marxist scholars.
 She writes that number of Nuclear is more than Joint
Family.
 Avg size of household increasing (death rate less, life
longetivity).
 Household have lifecycle (fission - fusion - fission)
 Stem family - Parents residing with married child
 Rural household size > urban size
 Regional difference (North India JF > South)
 Shah, Kolenda helped break the myth of disintegration
of JF in India.
 Feminist view- whether joint family or nuclear
family transformation is not affecting status of
women- sexuality, DOL, Reproduction based on
patriarchy.
 Classical sociologists- Modernity - Household
residential place- family social institution.
 Rise of socialism and modernity -Family functions
are being taken by play schools, old age homes,
marriage bureaus, child care centers - family
importance down - household importance up-
Scandinavian countries household study is
important.
 From household study- can find out changes in
Indian society.
 Global migration Phillipines and India- married
women- job outside- living in households with
friends or alone.
 In household-
 - More importance to friendship than to kinship
 - Immense individual liberty
 - Sexual freedom
 - Limited or no liability towards other members
 - Suitable for fragile or mobile population
Marriage:
 Marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or more persons establish a
family. It involves not only the right to conceive and rear children (who are some-
times conceived as an institutionalized preliminary to marriage) but also a host of
other obligations and privileges affecting a good many people.


Marriage can be defined as a socially acknowledged and approved sexual union

between two adult individuals.
 According to Malinowski, ‘Marriage is a contract for the production and
maintenance of children’.
 According to the Collins Dictionary of Sociology, ‘Marriage is a socially
acknowledged and sometimes legally ratified union between an adult male and an
adult female’.
 RIGHTS THROUGH MARRIAGE
 Leach considered marriage to be ‘bundles of rights’ which includes both kinship
rights and domestic rights –
I. Legitimating offspring.
II. Socially approved access to the spouse’s sexuality, labor and property.
III. Establishment of affinal relationships between persons and between groups.
IV. Domestic rights provides the basis of formation of household, division of labor.
Types of Marriage
 Polygyny is a form of marriage in which one man married more than one
woman at a given time.
 Sororal polygyny is a type of marriage in which the wives are invariably the
sisters. It is often called sororate.
 Polyandry is the marriage of one woman with several men.

◦ Fraternal polyandry: When several brothers share the same wife the
practice can be called alelphic or fraternal polyandry. This practice of
being mate, actual or potential to one’s husband’s brothers is called
levirate. It is prevalent among Todas.
◦ Non – fraternal polyandry: In this type the husband need not have
any close relationship prior to the marriage. The wife goes to spend
some time with each husband. So long as a woman lives with one of her
husbands; the others have no claim over her.
◦ Group Marriage: It means the marriage of two or more women with
two or more men. Here the husbands are common husbands and wives
are common wives. Children are regarded as the children of the entire
group as a whole.

 Monogamy is a form of marriage in which one man marries the woman.

 Serial monogamy – In many societies individuals are permitted to marry again often on the

death of the first spouse or after divorce but they cannot have more than one spouse at one and

the same time.

 When marriage to an outside group is mandated, it is referred to as exogamy.

Endogamy, also called in-marriage, custom enjoining one to marry within one’s own group.

 Endogamy: It is a rule of marriage in which the life-partners are to be selected within the

group. It is marriage within the group and the group may be caste, class, tribe, race, village,

religious group [Link] have caste endogamy, class endogamy, sub caste endogamy, race

endogamy and tribal endogamy etc. In caste endogamy marriage has to take place within the

caste. Brahmin has to marry a Brahmin. In sub caste endogamy it is limited to the sub caste

groups.


 Exogamy: It is a rule of marriage in which an
individual has to marry outside his own group. It
prohibits marrying within the group. The so-called
blood relatives shall neither have marital
connections nor sexual contacts among
themselves. Forms of exogamy:
◦ Gotra Exogamy: The Hindu practice of one
marrying outside one’s own gotra.
◦ Pravara Exogamy: Those who belong to the
same pravara cannot marry among themselves.
◦ Village Exogamy: Many Indian tribes like
Naga,Garo,Munda etc have the practice of
marrying outside their village.
◦ Pinda Exogamy: Those who belong to the
same panda or sapinda( common parentage)
cannot marry within themselves.
 Isogamy: It is the marriage between two equals
(status)
 Anisogamy: It is an asymmetric marriage
alliance between two individuals belonging to
different social statuses. It is of two forms –
Hypergamy and Hypogamy.
 Hypergamy: It is the marriage of a woman with
a man of higher Varna or superior caste or family.
 Hypogamy: It is the marriage of high caste man
with a low caste woman.
 Orthogamy: It is the marriage between selected
groups.
 Cerogamy: It is two or more men get married to
two or more women.
Changes in Marriage
 Societies with traditions of plural marriages are turning towards
monogamy. Even in a Muslim country like Pakistan, legislation was
introduced making it necessary for the ‘kazi’ to solemnize plural
marriages only if the first wife gave her written consent.
 Special Marriage Act, 1954 of India provides for secular marriages, inter
religion marriages etc.
 Hindu marriage Act prohibits polygamy.
 Desire for symmetrical relations in marriage – as highlighted by Young and
Willmott, need for dual employment of husband and wife, desire of
women to participate in workforce etc are factors that are now affecting
marital relations.
 But still problems exist like Karve in her study found that dowry is
becoming more entrenched and prices of groom are increasing with
education.
Child marriage is still practiced in some parts of country, especially
among Rajputs of Rajasthan and in states like Bihar.
B. Types and Forms of
Family
Types and Forms of Family
 On the basis of marriage:
 Polygamous families may be described as

families in which either spouse is allowed to

have more than one spouse simultaneously.
Monogamous families are those families in
which the marriage is limited to one spouse.
 On the basis of residence:
 Patrilocal family: The family in which after marriage wife comes
to reside in the family of her husband is known as patrilocal
family. The patrilocal family is also patriarchal and patrilineal in
 Matrilocal family: The family in which after marriage husband
comes to reside in the family of her wife is known as matrilocal
family. It is just opposite of patrilocal family. This type of family is
also Matriarchal and Matrilineal in
 Bilocal family: In this type of family after marriage the married
couple change their residence alternatively. Sometimes wife joins
in her husband’s house while at some other times husband
resides in wife’s house. That is why this type of family is also
known as family of changing
 Neolocal family: After marriage when newly married couple
establish a new family independent of their parents and settled at
a new place this type of family is known as neo- local
 On the basis of size and structure:
 Nuclear Family: A nuclear family is a family which consists of husband, wife
and their unmarried children. The size of nuclear family is very small. It is an
autonomous unit. There is no control of the elders because newlyweds crate
a separate residence for themselves which is independent of elders. It is also
known as primary
 Joint or Extended Family: It includes members of three to four
generations. It is an extension of parent child This family is based on close
blood ties. It is like the joint family of Hindu Society.
 The eldest male member is the head of the family. It is characterized by
common residence, common kitchen, and commensality, sharing of
property, performance of ritual bonds, reciprocal obligations and sentiments.
 Extended family consists of father, mother, their sons and their wife,
unmarried daughters, grandchildren, grandfather, grandmother, uncles,
aunts, their children and so on. This type of family found to exist in rural
community or agrarian economy
 On the basis of Authority:
 Patriarchal Family: The family in which all the power remains in the
hands of patriarch or father is known as patriarchal family. In other words
in this type of family power or authority is vested in the hands of eldest
male member of the family who is supposed to be the father. He exercises
absolute power or authority over the other members of family. He owns
family
 After his death authority transferred to the eldest son of family. In this
family descent is known through father line. In this type of family wife
after marriage come to reside in his husband’s house. Joint family system
among the Hindus is a fine example of patriarchal family.
 Matriarchal family: In this family power or authority rests on the eldest
female member of the family especially the wife or mother. She enjoy
absolute power or authority over other members of the family. She owns
all the family property. In this family descent is known through the mother.
Headship is transferred from mother to the eldest daughter. Husband
remain subordinate to his wife in a matriarchal This type of family is found
among the Nayars of Kerala and among the Garo and Khasi tribes of
Assam.
 Family on the basis of descent:

 Patrilineal family: The family in which descent or ancestry is determined

through father line and continues through father it is known as patrilineal

The property and family name is also inherited through father line. The

patrilineal family is also patrilocal and patriarchal in nature.

 Matrilineal family: Matrilineal family is just opposite of the patrilineal

The family in which descent is determined through mother line or

continues through mother it is known as Matrilineal family. The property

and family name is also inherited through mother line. This right

transferred from mother to daughter. A woman is the ancestor of family.

The Matrilineal family is Matrilocal and Matriarchal in nature. This type of

family found among the Nayars of Kerala and among tribals like Garos and
C. Lineage and
Descent
Lineage and descent in India.
 Lineage:
 - It is the principle based upon which
inheritance is chosen.
 Example: Patrilineage, Matrilineage.
 - It refers to a particular type of kin group in
which a member has a common ancestor
whose identity is known.
 Also, a body of people who are arranged
together on the basis of common blood linkage.
 Patriarchal society-daughter not part of father’s
lineage group.
 Descent: - It is the principle whereby a child is
socially affiliated with the group of his/her parents.
 Classical AnthropologistsPatrilineal-determining
descent through the male line.
 Matrilineal-determining descent through the
female line.
 Lineage system can be divided into 2 parts-
Unilineal - a system of determining descent in
which someone either belongs to father’s lineage
or mother’s lineage, both patrilineal and matrilineal
are included under unilineal lineage system.
 Non unilineal- a system where exists multiple
forms of relationships.
 Indologist Ghurye studied how descent
influences marriage, family, and kinship in
India.
 Marriage Rules in Northern India: In
Northern India, people cannot marry within
their extended kinship group. Marriages follow
specific kinship and descent rules.
 Gotra and Charna: Ghurye highlighted that
"Gotra" and "Charna" are exogamous groups,
meaning people marry outside these groups.
These terms, from Indo-European cultures,
organized people by rank and status and were
based on ancient rishis (saints) who were
considered the founders of these groups.
 Gail Omvedt – Caste is an expanded
descent system.
 Andre Beteille- kinship in India strong, so

that Voting is driven by kinship rather than

on merit.
 Primary source of political recruitment:

kinship group.
 Thus, Democratic political system in India is

engaged in social and cultural reproduction.

 Krishna Kumar - Kinship in India is so intensive
that- behind every corrupt man - there is an
ambitious family- Industrial recruitment greatly
takes place on the basis of kinship rather than on
merit.
 With modernity in India- kinship and descent
have not changed a little also- so important to
study under social transformation.
 Role of descent and kinship not only decides
private spheres of life like marriage, family etc
rather very well defines occupation, political
activities etc.
 Patriarchy and sexual division
of labour
 History of Male Dominance: The idea that men should be in charge
has a long history and is often supported by many religions.
 Engels' Theory: Engels first explained how patriarchy works,
particularly in capitalist societies where women are seen as less
important.
 Sylvia Walby's Definition: In her book "Theorizing Patriarchy"
(1990), Sylvia Walby defines patriarchy as a system where men control
and oppress women. She says patriarchy affects various areas:
◦ Household: Women often do unpaid work at home.
◦ Jobs: Women face discrimination in the workplace.
◦ Politics: Men hold most political power.
◦ Violence: Men’s violence against women is often systematic.
◦ Sexuality: There are double standards for men and women in sexual behavior.
◦ Culture: Institutions like education and media reinforce male dominance.
 Types of Patriarchy:
◦ Private Patriarchy: Seen in individual households.
◦ Public Patriarchy: Refers to the overall societal response that maintains male
dominance.
Sexual Division of Labour
 Division of Labor: This means breaking down a big task into
smaller, specialized tasks.
 Sexual Division of Labor: This is about assigning different tasks
to people based on their sex and gender.
 Biological Theories:
◦ Some experts, like Lionel Tiger and Robin Fox, believe this
division of labor is due to biological factors.
◦ In their book "The Imperial Animal" (1972), they introduce the
idea of "Human Biogrammar," which suggests that our biology
influences our roles.
◦ They argue that because humans have been hunters and
gatherers for most of history, men have become more
aggressive and dominant, while women are biologically inclined
to reproduce and care for children.
 Ann Oakley's View:
◦ In her book "Housewife" (1974), Ann Oakley criticizes the idea that
biology dictates gender roles.
◦ She argues that while sex is biological, gender roles are created by
society.
◦ Gender roles come with different rewards and create inequalities
between men and women.
◦ Oakley provides examples of women doing traditionally male jobs
and points out that before industrialization, men and women had
more equal roles in work.
◦ Industrialization changed this, leading to women being labeled
primarily as housewives.
 Jessie Bernard's View:
◦ In "The Future of Marriage" (1976), Jessie Bernard explains that men
and women benefit differently from marriage.
◦ Married men often have more successful careers compared to single
men.
◦ In contrast, married women may face more depression compared to
single women.
  THE INDIAN CONTEXT
 In Indian context, caste is also viewed by feminists as a patriarchal

institution as across the castes, role of women is of domestic worker.

 Together with religion, it defines role of women in Indian society.
 According to Uma Chakravorty, Brahminical traditions glorify obedient

women as ‘Pativrata’ and hence put a veil on gender discrimination.

 Patriarchy legitimizes motherhood as primary role of women. In Indian

society, patriarchy as a social institution gives rise to other social values

such as male child

preference, sexual purity, monogamy, fasting by women and abstinence of

women from public discourse.


E. Contemporary
Trends
 Family Diversity: Families and marriages vary greatly around the world today.

 Traditional vs. Modern:

◦ In remote regions of Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Rim, traditional family systems remain largely

unchanged.

◦ In most developing countries, significant changes are happening.

 Key Factors Driving Change:

◦ Western Influence: Western ideas, like romantic love, are spreading to places where they were

previously unknown.

◦ Centralized Government: Governments in formerly independent regions are influencing

people's lives and trying to change traditional behaviors.

◦ Population Growth: Countries like China promote smaller families and contraception to

manage rapid population growth.

◦ Urban Migration: Moving from rural areas to cities can weaken traditional family structures.

◦ Employment Shifts: Jobs in cities or industrial settings disrupt traditional family systems based

around farming and local communities.

 Overall Trend: There’s a global trend
toward breaking down traditional extended
families and kinship groups. This trend, first
noted by William J. Goode in 1963, has been
confirmed by later research.
 Clans and other kin groups are declining in their
influence.
 There is a general trend towards the free selection of a
spouse.
 The rights of women are becoming more widely
recognized, in respect to both the initiation of marriage
and decision – making within the family.
 Arranged marriages are becoming less common.
 Higher levels of sexual freedom, for men and women,
are developing in societies that where very restrictive.
 There is a general trend towards the extension of
children’s rights.
 There is an increased acceptance of same- sex
partnerships.
 It would be a mistake to exaggerate these trends, or to presume that
they have occurred uniformly around the world many of them are still
being fought for and are bitterly contested. Similarly it would be a
mistake to suppose that the extended family is everywhere in decline.
In most societies today, extended families are still the norm, and
traditional family practices continue.

 Moreover, there are differences in the speed at which change is

occurring and there are reversals and countertrends :
 Family Size Has Decreased:
 Single-Parent Families Have Increased:
 Unmarried Parenthood Has Increased
 Single-Person Household Have Increased
 Non-marital Cohabitation Has Increased
 The Quiet Revolution in Women’s Employment
 The Dual-Carrier Family Is Becoming Coming
 The Status Of Divorce Has Changed
 Domestic violence
 Contemporary trend in family functions :

 Economic Roles: The family’s role in managing

economic responsibilities has decreased.
 Sexual Regulation: The family’s role in regulating
sexual behavior has diminished.
 Reproductive Role: The importance of the family for
having and raising children has lessened.
 Socialization: The family’s role in teaching and guiding
children has become more significant.
 Emotional Support: The family’s role in providing
affection and companionship has grown.
 Status Definition: The family’s role in defining social
status continues.
 Protection: The family’s role in providing protection has
decreased.
 Alternatives to traditional forms of
marriage and family:
 Cohabitation
 Gay and lesbian partnerships
 Staying single
The Future of the Family
 Divorce and Marriage Facts
◦ Divorce rates can be misleading. The idea that half of all marriages end in
divorce isn’t true.
◦ Fewer than 40% of people who marry will get divorced, and over 60% of
first marriages last until death.
 Sociologists' Views
◦ Some sociologists think the family might not last, but most disagree.
◦ In Israeli Kibbutzim, which tried to eliminate the family unit, there’s now a
trend to make the family more important again.
 Family's Importance Today
◦ Despite predictions of its decline, the family is still strong and might even
be growing in importance.
◦ Work and community are less satisfying for many people, making the
family a key source of emotional fulfillment.

 How the Family Will Change
◦ The key question is not if the family will last, but how it
will change.
◦ The rise of computers might change how families work,
shop, and play at home, but it’s too soon to know the full
impact.
 Possible Future Trends
◦ Some believe the traditional nuclear family is fading and
might be replaced by more independent couples with
less focus on children and close relationships.
◦ Others think we might see a return to more traditional
and structured family setups in the future.
 Overall Outlook
◦ While it's clear the family will continue to exist, its exact
future direction is uncertain.